
II 



Class rL-' II 
Book C3^\ 3 
GopyrightN 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS 
ENGLISH 



BY 
BENJAMIN J. CAMPBELL 

Author of "Modern Business Punctuation," 
Accompanied with "Exercises for Punctuation' 

AND 
BRUCE L. VASS 



$ 



Copyright 1910 
By BENJAMIN J. CAMPBELL and BRUCE L. VASS 



7E/'" 
C3Y- 3 



CCIA280.073 



PREFACE 



In the preparation of this text, the authors have made 
no attempt at originality, except as to the manner of pre- 
senting the subject. They have kept uppermost in mind 
the object to be attained — the ability on the part of the 
student to use correct English. With this end in view, 
the material has been selected from various sources, and 
so modified and arranged as to produce this result with 
the least expenditure of time on the part of the student, 
and a minimum of work on the part of the teacher. 

No attempt has been made to produce an exhaustive 
treatise for the few, but rather a book of essentials for the 
many ; nor has any effort been made to speculate upon the 
technical phases of the subject. The student's need is 
not theory and comment, but rather the rules and prin- 
ciples, with their proper application. It is utterly useless 
to learn rules unless one learns to apply them. 

The Parts of Speech. — In Part I the Parts of Speech 
are clearly defined, and their use fully illustrated by care- 
fully selected sentences. The student is here taught that 
the part of speech to which a word belongs is determined 
by its use in the sentence. The work in this chapter 
lays the foundation for the study of Analysis, treated in 
Part II. 

Analysis.— Too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
importance of Analysis. As a mental drill in logical think- 
ing, it is unexcelled. The student who can analyze the 
English sentence is well prepared to analyze anything else. 
Aside from developing the reasoning power, it has no supe- 



PREFACE 

rior as an exercise in enabling the student to express his 
own thoughts clearly and to understand the expressed 
thoughts of others. The student must understand the 
relation between the elements of a sentence before he can 
be expected to arrange these elements properly, to punc- 
tuate intelligently, or to put into application the rules of 
syntax. Attention is called to the practical nature of the 
sentences for analysis. Poetry, idiomatic expressions, etc., 
over which many hours are wasted in fruitless discussions, 
find no place in this text. 

Syntax. — The value of a study of Syntax cannot be 
overestimated, for upon a thorough mastery of it depends, 
in a large measure, the student's ability to use correct 
English. The rules are clearly stated; each rule is illus- 
trated by an example ; and abundant exercises are given 
to thoroughly ground the student in the application of 
these rules. 

How to Write Clearly. — In this chapter no attempt 
has been made to give an exhaustive treatise of the sub- 
ject of Rhetoric, but rather to give sufficient rules and 
illustrations to enable the student to avoid most of the 
faulty constructions. 

Choice of Words. — This section has been added to 
give the student a drill in the discrimination of those 
words most commonly confused either in the use or in the I 
spelling. The words treated are of so practical a nature 
that we believe this department will be recognized as a 
valuable feature of the book. 

Punctuation. — The rules of Punctuation are clearly 
stated, and are sufficiently comprehensive to give the 
student a good knowledge of the subject. 



PARTI 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of 
written or spoken words. 

2. Grammar is the science that treats of the correct use 
of language. 

3. All the words in the English language are divided into 
classes according to their use in the sentence; and these 
classes, eight in number, are called parts of speech. 

4. The names of the parts of speech are: 

Noun Adyerb 

Pronoun Preposition 

Adjective Conjunction 

Terb Interjection 

The Parts of Speech Defined 

THE NOUN 

5. A noun is the name of anything. 

6. It may be — 

i . The name of a person, place, or thing ; as, James, New 
York, book. 

2. The name of some attribute that we can see, hear, 
taste, smell,or feel ; as, beauty, melody, sweetness, odor, pain. 

3. The name of some quality or condition that may be 
simply thought of; as, diligence, gentleness, perseverance \ 
happiness, faith. 

4. The name of an action; as, walking, riding, talking, 
singing. 



2 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Classification of Nouns 

7. All objects of the same class have the same general 
name. To distinguish a particular object from others of 
the class to which it belongs, it is given a special name of 
its own not applicable to the rest of its class. Thus, the 
name city is applicable to any large town, while Boston is 
the name of a particular city; hence, nouns are divided 
into two classes: common and proper. 

8. A common noun is a name that applies to all objects 
of the same class ; as, boy, river, mountain, flower, geranium. 

While the name geranium does not apply to all flowers, it 
does apply to all of the class of flowers called geraniums ; hence, it 
is a common noun. 

9. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing; as, James, Chicago, Mount Mitchell. 

While James is the name of a large number of boys, it does not 
apply to all boys; hence, it is a proper noun. 



Exercise 1 

Copy the nouns, arranging the common 
first column, and the pioper nouns in the 
all proper nouns with capital letters. 



boy 

james 

house 

friend 

flower 

geranium 

neighbor 

tree 

clouds 



maple 

jackson 

earth 

monday 

day 

month 

february 

eagle 

column 



bible 

mountains 

alleghany 

river 

potomac 

street 

f ranee 

iron 

science 



nouns in the 
second. Begin 

great britain 

united states 

new york 

Christmas 

winter 

season 

president 

secretary 

napkin 



Classes of Common Nouns 

1 0. Common nouns are divided into four classes : abstract, 
collective, verbal, and class. 



THE NOUN 3 

11. An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a con- 
dition, or an action, considered apart from the object to 
which it belongs; as, whiteness, slavery, deception. 

12. Abstract nouns are formed — 

i. From adjectives; as, goodness from good', honesty 
from honest; sweetness from sweet. 

2. From verbs; as, deception from deceive; knowledge 
from know; belief from believe. 

3. From nouns; as, friendship from friend; heroism from 
hero; childhood from child. 

13. A collective noun is the name of a collection of 
persons or things; as, army, jury, flock, audience. 

14. A verbal noun is a noun ending in -ing that is the 
name of an action or of a state of being ; as, singing, standing, 
seeing, believing. 

15. A class noun is any common noun that is not a 
collective, an abstract, or a verbal noun. 

Exercise 2 

Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives: free, false, 
holy, careless, brief, long, high, wise. 

Form, abstract nouns from the following verbs : occupy, imagine, 
separate, deceive, deny, choose, believe, unite. 

Form abstract nouns from the following common nouns: 
brother, man, friend, infant, agent, partner, patriot. 

Name a collective noun that denotes a collection of persons; 
of ships; of birds; of sheep; of cattle; of fish; of bees. 

Exercise 3 

Copy the nouns, arranging abstract nouns in the first 
column, collective in the second, verbal in the third, and 
class in the tourth. 

1. Congress has adjourned. 2. Running is a healthful exer- 
cise. 3. Honesty is the best policy. 4. The congregation were 
in tears. 5. The shepherd was guarding his flock. 6. Our greatest 



4 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall. 
7. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own 
ignorance. 8. Hunting, fishing, and rowing occupied the most 
of my time during vacation. 9. The jury asked for further in- 
structions. 10. Silence is a great peacemaker. 11. The com- 
mittee is now ready to report. 12. Kindness is commendable. 
13. Giving is better than hoarding. 14. Truth is eternal. 15. Vic- 
tory is born of endurance. 16. The audience was large. 17. The 
herd was quietly grazing. 18. England has a large army and 
a powerful navy. 19. He was noted for his justice and wisdom. 
20. The warmth and closeness of the room oppressed me. 



THE PRONOUN 

16. A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a 
noun. 

Pronouns are used to avoid the monotonous repetition of 
nouns. The sentence, "Ralph put Ralph' shook into Ralph's desk," 
is grammatically correct, but it is much more pleasing to the ear 
to say, "Ralph put his books into his desk." 

17. Pronouns are divided into four classes: personal, 

relative, interrogative ■, and indefinite. 

18. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by 
its form whether it represents the person speaking, the 
person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Example: "/ saw you and her." Here / is used instead 
of the name of the speaker; you, instead of the name of 
the person spoken to; and her, instead of the name of the 
person spoken of. 

19. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to 
a preceding word, phrase, or clause, called its antecedent, 
and joins to it a clause. 

Example: He who would seek for pearls must dive 
below. In this sentence, who is used to join the clause, 
who would seek for pearls, to he, the antecedent of the rela- 



THE PRONOUN 5 

tive, and is also the subject of the dependent clause, who 
would seek for pearls. 

20. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what, 
with their compound forms, whoever, whosoever, whichever, 
whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

21. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in 
asking a question. 

Examples : Who is that ? Which of us shall go ? What 
did he say? 

22. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what. 

23. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not 
denote any particular person or thing. 

24. The principal indefinite pronouns are one, none, 
some, any, aught, naught, both, jew, each, either, neither, other, 
several, many, all, this, these, and that, with their compound 
forms, nobody, somebody, anyone, something, etc. 

Most of these words are used as adjectives also. When they 
stand alone, they are pronouns; as, "Few shall part where many 
meet." But when they are followed by nouns that they modify, 
they are adjectives ; as, "Few persons shall part where many meet." 

Exercise 4 

Copy the pronouns, arranging personal pronouns in the 
first column, relative in the second, interrogative in the 
third, and indefinite in the fourth: 

1. Who is he? 2. When did you see him last? 3. It was he 
who did it. 4. God helps those who help themselves. 5. Is 
it I whom you want ? 6. Some one has taken my pencil. 7. Who 
wrote Evangeline? 8. It was they whom you saw. 9. Few can 
sing as well as she. 10. They are never alone who are accompanied 
with noble thoughts. 11. Why did you do it? 12. Each must 
take his turn. 13. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 14. No 
one is useless in this world who lightens the burden of it for 
another. 15. Who do you think he is? 16. The song that we 



6 ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 

hear with our ears is only the song that is sung in our heart. 
17. He who spends more than his wages will always be a beggar, 
and so will his family after him. 18. Who is that? 19. This is your 
book. 20. Which do you prefer? 21. Whom is that for? 
22. What shall I do with this? 23. Teach me to feel another's 
woe. 24. Think all that you speak, but speak not all that you 
think. 25. Both are acceptable. 



THE ADJECTIVE 

25. An adjective is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a noun or a pronoun. 

Examples: This book, five apples, large trees, a good 
horse. 

Classes of Adjectives 

26. Adjectives are divided into two classes: limiting 
and descriptive. 

27. A limiting adjective is one that limits or restricts 
the meaning of a noun without expressing a quality ; as, 
one, this, that, a, the, few, all, each, either, neither, etc. 

The limiting adjectives the, and an or a are called articles. 
The is called the definite article ; an or a, the indefinite article. 

28. A descriptive 'adjective is one that describes or 
expresses a quality; as, good, beautiful, tall, pretty, fine. 

Exercise 5 

Copy the adjectives, arranging limiting in the first column, 
and descriptive in the second. 

1. A wise son maketh a glad father. 2. The road is rough. 
3. A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 4. It cuts 
both ways like a two-edged sword. 6. All men are mortal. 6. If 
we had more time, there would be less haste. 7. You will 
find him in the seventh room on the third floor. 8. Fine sense 
and exalted sense are not half so useful as common sense. 9. Of 



EXERCISES 7 

plain, sound sense life's current coin is made. 10. This pencil 
and those pens are mine. 11. There are many wealthy men in 
this country. 12. Much wisdom often goes with the fewest words. 
13. The best and noblest lives are those which set toward high 
ideals. 14. The sky is blue. 15. A little learning is a dangerous 
thing. 16. I was there several times. 17. To feel an honest joy 
at the success of another is noble. 18. I have lost my new tan 
gloves. 19. The best preparation for good work tomorrow is to 
do good work today. 20. A smile makes a sad heart glad. 

Exercise 6 

Tell whether the words in italics are nouns, adjectives, 
or pronouns, and state what the adjectives modify: 

1. We heard a strange sound. 2. A sound mind in a soundbody 
is essential to success. 3. Those books are mine. 4. Those are my 
books. 5. It is a fine day. 6. The fine was too heavy. 7. Each did 
his duty. 8. I have but one suggestion to off er. 9. She has a pretty 
gold watch. 10. Gold was discovered in California in 1848. 11. Have 
you any letters to write to-day ? 12. No, I haven't any. 13. Right 
makes might. 14. We believe that you are pursuing the 
right course. 15. Neither will answer my purpose. 16. A calm 
precedes the storm. 17. One of the boys will go with you. 18. What 
a calm night! 19. Several were absent today. 20. The postman 
makes his daily round. 21. I prefer the other. 22. The oak 
tree was struck by lightning. 23. The desk is made of 
oak. 24. Neither proposition is satisfactory. 25. Each boy who 
excels will be rewarded. 26. The principal thing that the principal 
did was, as a matter of principle, to draw interest on the principal 
due. 27. I saw him several days ago. 28. A rolling stone gathers 
no moss. 29. All is well that ends well. 30. His house was 
surrounded by a stone wall. 31. Either is satisfactory. 32. Some 
of them are very fine. 33. They live in a flat. 34. The other boy 
did well too. 35. The land is flat. 36. Either one would answer. 
37. Time cannot rob us of recollections of the past. 38. Past 
tense refers to past time. 39. He occupies the rooms above. 40. 
We have had enough. 41. It seems to come from above, 42. Have 
you paper enough. 43. He brought me a basket full of flowers. 
44. What did he say? 45. The good die young. 46. This is the 
full of the moon. 47. He was a good man. 48. It was all over in a 
second. 49. Like produces like. 50. He did much to relieve the poor. 



8 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE VERB 

29. A verb is a word that asserts something about some 
person or thing. 

Some verbs express action; as, "Birds sing;" some express 
existence; as, "I am here;" and others express state or condition; 
as, "He feels happy." 

30. A group of words used to make an assertion is called 
a verb phrase. 

31. A verb phrase consists of a principal verb and one 
or more helping words, called an auxiliary verb. Auxil- 
iary means aiding; hence, auxiliary verbs are so called 
because they aid in forming verb phrases. The principal 
auxiliary verbs are be (with its various forms is, am, are, 
was, were), can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, 
would, will, do, did, have, and had. Some of these may 
be used as principal verbs. 

In the sentence, "The work should have been done sooner," 
done is the principal verb, and should have been is an auxiliary verb. 

The parts of a verb phrase are sometimes separated by other 
words; as, "He had, a. few days before, been elected president of the 
society." 

Exercise 7 
Copy the verbs and verb phrases, and draw a line under 
the principal verb in the verb phrases: 

1. The children play in the yard. 2. Did you hear the bell? 
3. Who will help me ? 4. All grand thoughts come from the heart. 

5. If he had not known how to swim, he would have drowned. 

6. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 7. Judges and senators 
have been bought for gold. 8. The birds are singing. 9. Every 
failure teaches a man something if he will learn. 10. James brought 
me some flowers when he came home. 11. The precious morning 
hours should not be wasted. 12. We were speedily convinced that 
his professions were insincere. 13. I do wish that you would come. 
14. He did not finish the work. 15. Where were you going when 
I met you? 16. I did not see you there. 17. He could have been 



THE VERB w 

elected if he had wanted the position. 18. Knowledge comes, but 
wisdom lingers. 19. Somebody has taken my book. 20. Dew- 
drops are the gems of the morning. 

Classes of Verbs 

32.' Verbs are divided into two classes: transitive and 
intransitive. 

33. A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object 
to complete the sense. 

Examples: The hunter shot a bird. Small courtesies 
sweeten life. 

The word transitive means to pass over; hence, a transitive 
verb usually implies a passing over of the action from the subject 
to the object. 

34. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not re- 
quire an object to complete the sense. 

Examples: The wind blows. Flowers bloom. 

Some verbs may be transitive in one sentence and intransi- 
tive in another. When followed by an object, a verb is transi- 
tive; when not followed by an object, it is intransitive. 

Examples: The wind blows the leaves (transitive). The wind 
blows (intransitive). 

In all cases, the use determines whether the verb is transitive 
or intransitive. 



THE DIRECT OBJECT 

35. The noun or pronoun that completes the meaning 
of a transitive verb is called the direct object. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Columbus discovered America," 
America is the direct object of the verb discovered, because it com- 
pletes the meaning and receives the action expressed by the verb. 



10 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT 

36. Most intransitive verbs make complete sense, but 
there are a few that require a noun, a pronoun, or an adjec- 
tive to complete their meaning. Such verbs are called 
incomplete intransitive or copulative verbs, because 
they connect a complement with the subject of the verb. 
The verb be (with its various forms is, am, are, was, were) 
is the only pure copulative verb, though other intransitive 
verbs are frequently thus used; as, appear, become, seem, 
look, feel, taste, smell, and the like. 

Test: A verb is copulative when some form of the verb be 
can be substituted for it; as, "He appears sick" = "He is sick." 

37. The complement may be a noun, a pronoun, or an 
adjective. 

38. The noun or pronoun that completes the meaning 
of an intransitive verb and refers to the subject is called 
the attribute complement, or predicate noun or pronoun. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Longfellow was a poet,"pO£t completes 
the meaning of the verb was, and refers to the subject Longfellow, 
telling what he was, and is, therefore, a predicate noun. 

Since the object always receives the action expressed by the 
verb, it is evident that poet in the foregoing sentence is not the 
object of the verb was, for the reason that was does not express 
action. Only verbs that express action or denote ownership can 
take objects. 

39. Predicate Adjective. — An adjective that com- 
pletes the meaning of an intransitive verb and modifies 
the subject is called a predicate adjective. 

Thus, in the sentence, "The apple is sweet," the adjective 
sweet modifies the subject, expressing a quality belonging to it. 

40. In such sentences as "The sun is shining," "The book 
is torn," beginners often find it difficult to determine 
whether the word following a form of the verb be is a part 



THE VERB 11 

of the verb phrase or a complement of the verb. If the 
predicate expresses action, the word in question is a part 
of the verb phrase; but if the predicate expresses a quality 
or a condition of the subject, the word is not a part of the 
verb, but a complement of the verb. In the sentence, 
"The sun is shining," is shining expresses a continuance 
of the action; hence, shining is a part of the verb. In the 
sentence, "The book is torn," is torn does not express 
action; we do not mean that they tore the book, but that 
it is a torn book. Torn is an adjective modifying book. 

Exercise 8 
Tell whether the italicized words are parts of the verb 
or attribute complements: 

1. Books are soiled by use. 2. The books are soiled. 3. The 
boy has soiled his new book. 4. He is tired. 5. He is rested now. 
6. The house is deserted. 7. It was deserted soon after it was built. 
8. The apples are freezing. 9. The apples are frozen. 10. We are 
happy now. 11. We have been happy here. 12. The field is 
plowed. 13. The man is plowing the field. 14. The field was 
plowed by the boy. 15. The prisoner is guilty. 16. He is hurt. 
17. He has hurt his ringer. 18. The flowers are blooming. 19. I 
am resting now. 20. The sky is blue. 21. The lesson is easy. 
22. Experience is expensive. 23. The rose is fragrant. 24. My 
vacation is now ended. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 

41. Some transitive verbs take, in addition to a direct 
object, what is called an indirect object, which denotes 
to whom or for whom an act is performed. The indirect 
object is always the object of the preposition to, for, or 
of understood, and may be so treated. 

Examples : He sent me a book=He sent a book to me. The 
tailor made him a coat=The tailor made a coat for him. 
He asked me a question=He asked a question of me. 



12 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 

42. Some transitive verbs require, in addition to the 
object, a noun or an adjective to complete the sense. 
Such noun or adjective always refers to the object, and is 
called the objective complement. 

Thus, in the sentence, "He made the stick straight," we do 
not mean he made the stick, but that he merely straightened it. 
Stick is the object, not of made, but of the verb idea expressed 
by made and the adjective straight; that is, he straightened the 
stick. 

In the sentence, "They elected Roosevelt president," elected 
Roosevelt does not fully express the meaning. President completes 
the sense and refers to Roosevelt. 

The objective complement is generally an attribute com- 
plement of the infinitive to be understood. Thus, "He made the 
stick (to be) straight. 

Exercise 9 

Copy the verbs, arranging transitive verbs in the first 
column, intransitive in the second, and copulative in the 
third: 

1. The stars shine. 2. The leaves are beautiful. 3. Labor 
conquers all things. 4. Honesty is the best policy. 5. Each 
individual has a place in the world to fill. 6. A wise man reflects 
before he speaks. 7. The noblest acquisition of man is speech. 
8. Fluency and eloquence are different things. 9. Ideas are the 
factors that lift civilization. 10. Wisdom is priceless. 11. Ideals 
control the world. 12. The earth revolves, yet we do not feel its 
motion. 13. Patience is a bitter seed, but it yields rich fruit. 
14. They were glad, yet they shed tears. 15. Truth is eternal. 
16. The gems have life in them; their colors speak. 17. My 
country is the world; my countrymen are all mankind. 18. He 
became rich. 19. I feel ill. 20. He and I studied and played 
together in boyhood. 21. Music refines the soul. 22. Every 
great thought alters the world. 23. The cowardice that yields to 
threats invites them. 24. He appears indifferent. 25. Velvet 
feels smooth. 



EXERCISES 



Exercise 10 



13 



Copy the complements, arranging direct objects in the 
first column, predicate nouns and pronouns and predicate 
adjectives in the second, indirect objects in the third, and 
objective complements in the fourth: 

1. Books are the legacies of genius. 2. The frost killed the 
flowers. 3. They elected him mayor. 4. Comparisons are odious. 
5. He is a follower of false prophets. 6. Honesty is the best policy. 
7. Did you send them a present? 8. The noblest acquisition of 
man is speech. 9. He gave me an introduction to his father. 
10. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 11. Benedict Arnold 
turned traitor. 12. The president appointed Mr. Fuller postmaster. 
13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. Please lend 
me your knife. 15. God called the light day, and the darkness 
he called night. 16. He painted the house brown. 17. Benedict 
Arnold became a traitor. 18. Good clothes are not good habits. 
19. He appears indifferent. 20. Please write us at once. 21. He 
looks cold. 22. Wisdom is priceless. " 23. We can make our lives 
sublime. 24. The sun feels warm. 25. Mary made her doll a new 
dress. 26. The flowers smell sweet. 27. A book is good company. 
28. The stars are distant worlds. 29. The physician pronounced 
the disease pneumonia. 30. Books, are embalmed minds. 

Exercise 11 

Tell whether the words in italics are verbs or adjectives, 
and why: 

1. He wore a light suit. 2. We light our lamps at night. 3. I 
saw a blind man. 4. The bright lights blind me. 5. He sat by 
an open window. 6. We do not open our store at night. 7. The 
songs sound sweet. 8. The apple is sound. 9. Do not idle away 
your time. 10. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 11. We 
dry all our apples. 12. The wood is dry. 13. He reads his own 
books. 14. We own that house. 15. Be sure you are right, then 
go ahead. 16. He will right the wrongs of the oppressed. 17. 
Here they made their last struggle. 18. Will this struggle last 
long? 19. The boys clean the floor every day. 20. Young man, 
keep your record clean. 



1-4 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE ADVERB 
43. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Examples: He spoke distinctly. The house is very large. 
He spoke very distinctly. 

Classes of Adverbs 

44 According to their use in the sentence, adverbs are 
divided into four classes: simple, interrogative, conjunctive, 
and modal. 

45. A simple adverb is an adverb that merely modifies 
the word with which it is used. 

Examples: He came early. The clouds moved slowly. 

46. Simple adverbs may be divided into six classes: 

i. Adverbs of time, answering the questions when? 
how long? how often? as, now, then, soon, sometimes, lately, 
always, yesterday, tomorrow, today, before, instantly, hereto- 
fore. 

2. Adverbs of place, answering the questions where? 
whither? whence? as, here, there, nowhere, anywhere, hither, 
thither, backward, upward. 

3. Adverbs of manner, answering the question how? 
as, easily, well, thoroughly, rapidly, softly, slowly, faithfully, 
swiftly. 

4. Adverbs of cause, answering the question why? 
as, therefore, wherefore, why, thus, etc. 

5. Adverbs of degree, answering the question how 
much? as, so, too, very, much, almost, exceedingly, little, more, 
most. 

6. Adverbs of number, answering the question how 
many? as, once, twice, thrice, first, secondly, thirdly, etc. 



THE ADVERB 15 

47. An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to ask 
a question; as, when, how, where, why. 

Examples: When did he arrive? How old is he? Where 
did he go? 

48. A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that modifies 
the meaning of some word in the subordinate clause, and 
at the same time connects the subordinate clause with 
the principal clause. 

In the sentence, "The birds sing when the sun shines," when 
modifies the meaning of the verb shines in the subordinate clause 
(the sun shines), and also joins the clause to the principal clause 
(the birds sing). 

49. A modal adverb is an adverb that modifies the 
meaning of the entire sentence rather than some particular 
word in the sentence, and is used to express affirmation, 
negation, probability, doubt, emphasis, etc. 

Examples: Thou shalt surely die. It is not all of life 
to live. Certainly, I shall go. 

50. Certain combinations of words that cannot easily 
be separated into parts, and that convey a single adverbial 
idea, may be called phrase adverbs; as, here and there, by 
and by, again and again, at hand, of course, at least, one by 
one, etc. 

# Exercise 12 

Copy the adverbs, arranging those that modify verbs in 
the first column, those that modify adjectives in the second, 
and those that modify adverbs in the third : 

1. Speak slowly and distinctly. 2. He writes very fast. 
3. Where is he now? 4. How did you do it ? 5. I may go soon. 
6. He came too late. 7. She listened very patiently. 8. He is 
thoroughly honest. 9. He writes tolerably well. 10. Too many 
cooks spoil the broth. 11. You are not careful enough. 12. Why 
did you stay so long ? 13. He formerly lived here. 14. We found 



16 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

the way very easily. 15. I could hardly hear him. 16. It is 
extremely cold. 17. I am very glad to see you. 18. He is seriously 
ill. 19. The work is eminently satisfactory. 20. Swiftly sailed 
the ship. 21. Is he any taller than I? 22. He is tall enough. 
23. The train was running too fast. 24. He knew full well that 
it was wrong. 25. Ill blows the wind that blows nobody good. 
26. He is a little taller than I. 27. He always does his work well. 
28. It should have been done sooner. 29. We camped there. 30. 
The prisoner begged hard for mercy. 31. I cannot believe other- 
wise. 32. Every man must patiently abide his time. 

Exercise 13 

Copy the adverbs, arranging simple adverbs in the first 
column, interrogative in the second, conjunctive in the 
third, and modal in the fourth : 

1. He was not ready when I called. 2. He would not tell 
where he had been. 3. She was quite well when I saw her last. 
4. I go where duty calls me. 5. I shall probably stay until I 
hear from him. 6. When did he go? 7. She sang while she 
worked. 8. Where does your friend live? 9.. Perhaps I shall 
see you again before I leave. 10. Why do you not attend school 
more regularly ? 11. I may possibly be here wnen you come again. 
12. We walked rapidly. 13. He gladly accompanied me to the 
theater. 14. He spoke slowly and distinctly. 15. We seldom 
go to the country. 16. He lives long that lives well. 17. The 
matter can be easily adjusted. 18. How long shall you remain? 
19. How did vou do that? 



THE PREPOSITION 

51. A preposition is a word used to connect a noun or 
a pronoun to some other word in the sentence, and to 
show the relation between them. 

Examples: The cottage stood by the river. The book 
on the table is mine. 

52. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is 
called its object. 



THE PREPOSITION 



17 



List of Simple Prepositions 



at 


into 


below 


without 


by 


over 


since 


around 


of 


past 


until 


besides 


in 


save 


under 


between 


on 


till 


across 


beneath 


to 


upon 


before 


through 


up 


with 


behind 


against 


off 


about 


beyond 


regarding 


for 


above 


during 


concerning 


but 


after 


except 


respecting 


down 


along 


toward 


underneath 


from 


among 


within 


throughout 



53. Some groups of words are used with the force of 
single prepositions and may be called phrase preposi- 
tions; as, out of, from beyond, according to, as to, in place of, 
on account of. 

List of Phrase Prepositions 



as to 


contrary to 


instead of 


as for 


devoid of 


in place of 


as regards 


from out 


in regard to 


along on 


from beyond 


in reference to 


aboard of 


for the sake of 


on account of 


apart from 


in accordance with 


to the extent of 


by way of 


in compliance with 


with respect to 



54. Some words that are commonly prepositions become 
adverbs when not followed by an object. 

Examples: He is in the house (preposition). Come in 
(adverb) . 



Exercise 14 

Tell whether the words in italics are prepositions or 
adverbs and state what the prepositions connect and what 
the adverbs modify: 



18 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

1. The man 1 came in and sat down. 2. The books are in the 
desk. 3. He has gone below. 4. The bridge is below the falls. 
5. Did you ever see him before! 6. Come before noon. 7. He has 
gone after the mail. 8. We looked around, but saw nothing. 
9. She stood by an open window. 10. We* rode around the park. 
11. The road runs through his farm. 12. I have not been there 
since that time. 13. He has not been there since. 14. We 
walked along the track. 15. The dew on the grass sparkled in 
the sunlight. 16. Just as I turned the corner, he came hurrying 
along. 17. My hat fell off.. 18. He fell off the horse. 19. He 
lagged behind. 20. The train was behind time. 



THE CONJUNCTION 

55. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, or clauses. 

Example: Mercy and truth have met together. 

Classes of Conjunctions 

56. Conjunctions are divided into two classes: co-ordi- 
nate and subordinate. 

57. A co-ordinate conjunction connects words, phrases 
or clauses of equal rank. 

Examples: Time and tide wait for no man. They 
passed through the door and across the room. They were 
glad, yet they shed tears. 

In the first sentence, and connects time and tide, two words of 
equal rank, because they jointly form the subject of the sentence. 
In the second sentence, and connects through the door and across 
the room, phrases of equal rank, because both modify passed. In 
the third sentence, yet connects the propositions, they were glad, 
and they shed tears, elements of equal rank, because each is an in- 
dependent sentence. 

58. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are but, 
and, or, nor, also, for, still, yet, furthermore. 



THE CONJUNCTION 19 

59. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate 
clause with a principal clause. 

Examples: We shall go if it does not rain. 
In this sentence, if connects the subordinate clause, it does not 
rain, with the principal clause, we shall go. 

60. The principal subordinate conjunctions are: 

as than while because 

so after though unless 

if since except although 

when until before provided 

61. Some groups of words are used with the force of 
single conjunctions and may be called phrase conjunc- 
tions; as, as well as, as soon as, as if, inasmuch as, in order 
that, so that, as though, but that, in case that, except that, 
provided that. 

62. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used 
in pairs, the first introducing and the second connecting 
the elements. 

63. The principal correlatives are: 

Both and: He is both wise and good. 

Neither. .. nor: Neither time nor money was spared. 
Though . . .yet: Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

Either or: He is either a knave or a fool. 

Whether . or: It matters not whether he goes or stays. 

Correlative conjunctions are either co-ordinate or subordinate, 
but for convenience they may be designated as correlatives. 

Exercise 15 

Copy the conjunctions, arranging co-ordinate conjunc- 
tions in the first column, subordinate in the second, and 
correlative in the third, and be prepared to tell what each 
connects : 

1. Silver and gold are precious metals. 2. Courage is admir- 
able, but patience is powerful. 3. He or I will go. 4. He failed 



20 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

because he had but little capital and no experience. 5. If you 
have tears, prepare to shed them now. 6. Over the mountain and 
over the moor, hungry and weary, I wandered forlorn. 7. The 
children laugh and play. 8. There was no one at home except 
mother and me. 9. We walked through the park and across the 
bridge. 10. I would tell who did it if I knew. 11. I shall go unless 
you object. 12. Flowers bloom when spring comes. 13. As he 
approached the stream, his heart began to thump. 14. He spoke 
as if he believed what he said. 15. We will write to him as soon 
as we hear from him. 16. Dispatches were received from Chicago 
and from New York. 17. Neither he nor I was to blame. 18. Make 
hay while the sun shines. 19. Both the wise and the unwise must 
suffer. 20. I shall not go unless you go with me. 



THE INTERJECTION 

64. An interjection is a word used to express strong 
emotion of some kind. 

"Example: Hurrah! Here come the boys. 

The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other 
words of the sentence. 

The following words are used as interjections: Oh! Ah! Fie! 
How! Why! Sie! Help! Well! Fire! Hark! Hush! Shame! Stop! 
Lookout! Beware! Farewell! Nonsense! 

Exercise 16 

Tell whether the words in italics are nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, 
and why : 

1. He is an American, and glories in the right of an American 
citizen. 2. All men are mortal. 3. All were well pleased. 4. He 
stood before me. 5. He has been here before. 6. He came before 
I left. 7. Always do your best. 8. He is the best penman in the 
class. 9. Both men are worthy of the position. 10. Both of them 
are industrious. 11. Both he and I are going. 12. There was no 
one at home but mother and me. 13. Man proposes, but God 



COMPOSITION 21 

disposes. 14. He is but a man. 15. He passed by on the other 
side. 16. Happiness is obtained by doing right. 17. We searched 
each person. 18. Each obeyed instructions. 19. I have enough. 
20. We all have trouble enough. 21. I know him well enough. 
22. There was no one at home except mother and me. 23. I will not 
let thee go, except thou bless me. 24. He is a fast runner. 25. He 
runs /art. 26. This work is hard. 28. A late frost killed the fruit. 
29. The elevator has just gone down. 30. She went down the 
street. 31. Now is the accepted time. 32. Do it now. 83. He 
will do it for you. 34. He merits the reward, for he worked hard. 
35. This is the only hotel in town. 36. There is only one hotel 
in town. 37. That time is now passed. 38. That is all right. 
39. He said that he would come. 40. If we while away our time, 
we shall not reach our journey's end for a long while. 

Composition 

Write three sentences containing modal adverbs. 

Write three sentences containing verb phrases. 

Write three sentences containing copulative verbs. 

Write three sentences containing verbs used transitively; three 
containing the same verbs used intransitively. 

Write two sentences containing for used as a conjunction and 
as a preposition. 

Write two sentences containing the same word used as a pre- 
posi'ion and as an adverb. 

Write four sentences containing that used as a noun, as an 
adjective, as a pronoun, and as a conjunction. 

Write three sentences containing limiting adjectives; three 
containing qualifying adjectives. 

Write two sentences using but as a prepositicn and as a con- 
junction. 

Write three sentences containing co-ordinate conjunctions; 
three containing subordinate conjunctions; three containing cor- 
lelative conjunctions. 

Write two sentences containing the same word used as a prep- 
osition and as a conjunction ; two containing the same word used 
as a conjunction and as an adverb. 

Write sentences containing each, either, all, that, and this used 
as indefinite pronouns; write sentences containing these words used 
as adjectives. 



22 ESSENTIALS OE BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Write two sentences containing predicate nouns; two contain- 
ing predicate adjectives; two containing direct objects; two con- 
taining indirect objects; two containing objective complements. 

Write two sentences containing the same word used as an ad- 
jective and as a verb ; two containing the same word used as an 
adjective and as an'adverb; two containing the same word used 
as an adverb and as a preposition. 

Test Questions 

1. Into how many classes are all the words of our language 
divided? 2. How do we determine to what part of speech a word 
belongs? 3. Into what classes are nouns divided? 4. Define a 
common noun. Give an example. 5. Into what classes are 
common nouns divided? Define and give an example of each 
class. 6. Define a pioper noun. Give an example. 7. What is 
a pronoun? 8. Into how many classes are pronouns divided? 
. Define and give an example of each class. 9. What is an adjective? 
10. Into what classes are adjectives divided? Define and give an 
example of each class. 11. What is a verb? 12. What is a trans- 
itive verb? Give an example. 13. What is an intransitive verb? 
Give an example. 14. What is a copulative verb ? Give an ex- 
ample. 15. What is the difference between the object of a trans- 
itive verb and the attribute complement of a copulative veib? 
16. What is the difference between an attribute complement and 
an objective complement? 17. What preposition may be supplied 
before an indirect object ? 18. Of what does a verb phrase con- 
sist? 19. What is an auxiliary verb? 20. What may be the 
attribute complement of a copulative verb? 21. What is an ad- 
verb? 22. Into what classes are adverbs divided? Define and 
give an example of each class. 23. Give a sentence containing an 
adverb of time; of place; of manner; of cause; of degree. 24. What 
parts of speech may an adverb modify? Give an example of each. 
25. What is a conjunction? 26. Into what classes are conjunctions 
divided? Define and give an example. of each. 27. What is a 
preposition ? 



PART II 

THE SENTENCE 

65. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a com- 
plete thought. 

Examples : Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Knowledge is 
power. 

66. A sentence is composed of two parts: the subject 
and the predicate. 

67. The subject is that part of a sentence about 
which something is asserted. 

68. The predicate is that part of a sentence that 
asserts something of the subject. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Rain falls," rain is the subject, because 
it is that of which something is asserted. Falls is the predicate, 
because is asserts something of the subject. 

MODIFIERS 

69. A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause joined to 
some word or other element to make the meaning more 
exact. 

70. When a modifier is added to the subject or the pred- 
icate, the subject or the predicate is said to be modified. 

Thus, in the sentence, "The spring rain falls gently," the and 
spring are modifiers of the simple subject rain, and gently is a 
modifier of the verb falls. 

71. The simple subject is the subject without its 
modifiers. 

Example: The spring rain falls gently. 

72. The complete subject is the subject with its modi- 
fiers. 

Example : The spring rain falls gently. 



24 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

73. The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase 
without its modifiers. 

Example : The spring rain falls gently. 

71. The complete predicate is the verb or the verb 
phrase with its modifiers and complements. 

Examples: The spring rain falls gently. Silence is a 
great peacemaker. 

Classes of Modifiers 

75. Modifiers are divided, according to form, into three 
classes: words, phrases, and clauses. 

76. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain 
a subject and a predicate and that is used as a single part 
of speech. 

Example: He is a man of wealth. Of wealth is a phrase 
modifying man, equivalent to wealthy. 

77. A phrase formed by a preposition and its object is 
called a prepositional phrase. 

78. A prepositional phrase may be used as — 

i. An adjective modifier; as,"A thing of beauty is a joy 
forever." Of beauty is an adjective phrase modifying thing. 

2. An adverbial modifier; as, "The ship sailed over the 
sea." Over the sea is an adverbial phrase modifying sailed. 

79. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject 
and a predicate and that is used as a single part of speech. 

Example: He is a man who is wealthy. Who is wealthy 
is an adjective clause modifying man, equivalent to wealthy. 

80. A clause may be used as — 

i. An adjective modifier; as, "A city that is set on a hill 
cannot be hid." That is set on a hill is an adjective clause 
modifying the noun city. 

2. An adverbial modifier; as, "Fools rush in where angels 
fear to tread." Where angels fear to tread is an adverbial 
clause modifying the verb rush. 



THE SENTENCE 25 

81. Appositive — A noun may be used to explain 
another noun. It is then said to be an appositive, or to 

be in apposition with the noun that it explains. 

Examples: Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign 
of Nero, Emperor of Rome. Labor to keep alive in your 
breast that little spark of celestial fire — conscience. 

Composition 

Write four sentences each containing a prepositional phrase 
used as an adjective. 

Write four sentences each containing a prepositional phrase 
used as an adverb. 

Write four sentences each containing a noun in apposition. 

Exercise 17 

Name the complete subject and the complete predicate; 
the simple subject and the simple predicate. Point out 
the phrases and tell what each modifies. 

Model. — The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

The laws of nature is the complete subject, and are the thoughts 
of God is the complete predicate. Laws is the simple subject, and 
are is the simple predicate. Of nature is a phrase modifying laws, 
and of God is a phrase modifying thoughts. 

1. A host of Indian warriors rushed across the plain. 2. The 
melodious notes of the organ were heard through the aisles of the 
cathedral. 3. The love of money is the root of all evil. 4. The 
deep cave on the hillside was long the secret home of a family of 
foxes. 5. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy 
islands. 6. The man with the black coat fell from the top of the 
wall. 7. He is an honest man. 8. The laws of nature are the 
thoughts of God. 9. The flowers in the garden are fragrant. 
10. The beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest 
admiration of mankind. 11. Both men are worthy of the position. 
12. Wild flowers of many different kinds grow in abundance in the 
woods. 13. We moved along silently and with caution. 14. A single 
grateful thought toward heaven is the most complete prayer. 
15. The widest excursions of the mind are made by short flights. 



26 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

16. He is the best speller in the class. 17. The actions of men 
are the best interpreters of their thoughts. 18. The doorstep to 
the temple of wisdom is the knowledge of our own ignorance. 
19. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by twelve 
thousand electric lamps. 20. The march of the human mind is 
slow. 21. Eloquence is a painting of the thoughts. 

VERBALS 

82. A yerbal is a word that is formed from a verb and 
that partakes of the functions of a verb and of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

83- Verbals may be divided into three classes: verbal 
nouns, infinitives, and participles. 

The Verbal Noun 

84. A yerbal noun is a word that is derived from a 
verb and that partakes of the functions of a noun and a 
verb at the same time. It is formed by adding -ing to 
the simple form of the verb; as, seeing from see; giving 
from give; doing from do. 

8 5. In form the verbal noun may be simple or compound 
as, "His doing the work well won the admiration of his 
teacher." "His having done the work well won the admira- 
tion of his teacher." Compound verbal nouns are formed 
by prefixing having, having been, or being to the perfect 
participle of the verb. 

86. The distinguishing characteristic of the verbal noun 
is that it is always used both as a noun and a verb at the 
same time. In its noun nature, it names an action and 
may be modified by a noun or a pronoun in the possessive 
case; it may be the subject or the attribute complement 
of a verb, or the object of a verb or of a preposition. In 
its verb nature, it may be modified by an adverb or an 
adverbial phrase, and when derived from a transitive 



VERBALS *' 

verb, it may take an object. In the sentence, "Rowing a 
boat on the lake is his principal pastime," rowing, as a 
noun, is used as the subject of the verb is, and as a verb, 
it takes the object boat, and is modified by on the lake, 
an adverbial phrase of place. 

Uses of the Verbal Noun 

87. The verbal noun may be used as — 
i. The subject; as, "Reading is profitable." 

2. The predicate complement; as, "Rest is not quitting 
the busy career." 

3. The object of a verb; as, "I enjoy reading good books." 

4. The object of a preposition; as, "I am not conscious 
of having neglected any duty." 

Composition 

Write three sentences each containing a verbal noun used, re- 
spectively: as the subject; as the predicate complement; as the 
object of a verb; as the object of a preposition. 

Exercise 18 

Point out the verbal nouns and tell whether they are 
used as subjects, predicate complements, objects of verbs 
or of prepositions. Name the modifiers of the verbal 
nouns and point out the objects of those that have objects: 

1. He was promoted for doing his duty. 2. I enjoyed visiting 
him. 3. I was surprised at your leaving so soon. 4. His acting 
so hastily was severely criticized. 5. He enjoys playing ball. 
6. Saving time is lengthening life. 7. I had given up all expec- 
tation of hearing from you. 8. Fishing and hunting were his 
principal amusements. 9. His principal amusements were rowing 
and swimming. 10. We enjoy riding on the lake. 11. Rest is 
not quitting the busy career. 12. Walking is a healthful exercise. 
13. Drawing trains both the eye and the hand. 14. Very much 
depends on your going now. 15. I regret having displeased him. 
16. He was pleased at winning the prize. 17. Praising all alike 
is praising none. 18. His occupation is teaching. 19. Right 



28 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

living is obeying the laws of God. 20. The boy was punished for 
running away. 21. The man denied having taken the watch. 
22. Do you remember my speaking to you? 23. There is no doubt 
of his having been promoted. 24. Learn the luxury of doing good. 
25. Youth is the time for forming character. 26, He is conscious 
of having done a good deed. 

THE INFINITIVE 

88. An infinitive is a word that is derived from a 
verb and that partakes of the nature of a verb, and of a 
noun, an adjective* or an adverb. 

89. The infinitive is usually preceded by to, which is 
commonly called the sign of the infinitive. This sign is 
omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, see, let, make, need, 
help, hear, and a few others; as, "I heard him (to) speak." 
"Please let me (to) go." 

90. In form, the infinitive, like the verbal noun, may 
be simple or compound; as, "To do the work well would 
require but little more time." "To have done the work 
well would have required but little more time." Com- 
pound infinitives are formed by prefixing to haze or w haze 
been to the perfect participle of the verb. 

91. An infinitive, with its modifiers, is called an infini- 
tiye phrase; as, "I have tried to do justice to everybody." 

Uses of the Infinitive 

92. The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective. 
or an adverb, and at the same time, it may take the modi- 
fiers of a verb, and when derived from a transitive verb, 
it may take an object. In the sentence, "He expected to 
see his friend in the morning," to see is an infinitive used as 
a noun, the object of the verb expected, and at the same 
time, it takes for its object the noun friend and is modified 
by in the morning, an adverbial phrase. 



VERBALS— THE INFINITIVE 29 

93. In some of their uses, infinitives are similar in con- 
struction to verbal nouns, and by some are distinguished 
from them only in form. Thus, "To Study is profitable"= 
"Studying is profitable." 

94. As a noun the infinitive may be used as — 

i. The subject of a verb; as, "To yield is often a mark 
of strength." 

The infinitive is frequently the real subject when the appar- 
ent subject is the pronoun it; as, "It is base to steal"="ro steal is 
base." 

2. The predicate complement of a verb; as, "His duty 
was to guard the men." 

3. The object of a verb; as, "He likes to read." 

4. The object of a preposition; as, "He cares for nothing 
except to make money." 

95. As an adjective the infinitive may modify a noun — 

1. Directly; as, "I have no time to waste." 

2. As a predicate adjective; as, "An early settlement of 
the question is to be desired" ==" An early settlement of the 
question is desirable." 

96. As an adverb the infinitive may modify — 

1. A verb, as, "The sower went forth to sow." 

2. An adverb; as, "He is not well enough to go." 

3. An adjective; as, "He is anxious to succeed." 

97. The infinitive may be used as part of a verb phrase; 
as, "It appears to be right." In this sentence, the verb 
phrase, appears to be, has the force of the verb is. 

98. The infinitive may be used as an assumed predicate; 
as, "I believe him to be honest." In this sentence, him to 
be honest is the object of the verb believe. To be is an infi- 
nitive used as the assumed predicate of the noun phrase 
him to be honest, of which him is the subject and honest is 



30 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

the attribute complement. In constructions of this kind, 
the noun or pronoun that preceded the infinitive is said to 
be its subject and is in the objective case. 

99. The infinitive phrase may be used independently; 
as, "To be frank, I do not think he is honest." 
Composition 

Write two sentences each containing the infinitive used, re- 
spectively : as the subject ; as the real subject with it as the apparent 
subject; as the predicate complement; as the object of a verb; 
as the object of a preposition ; as an adiective modifier; as an adver- 
bial modifier; as a part of a verb phrase. 

Exercise 19 

Point out the infinitives and tell whether they are used 
as subjects, objects, predicate complements, assumed predi- 
cates, parts of verb phrases, adjectives, or adverbs. Name 
the modifiers of the infinitives and point out the objects of 
those that have objects: 

1. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 2. He desires 
to go with you. 3. They made an effort to escape. 4. I have 
something to say. 5. His desire is to know the truth. 6. I saw 
him fall. 7. The children went to the park to play. 8. My pur- 
pose is to set forth the truth. 9. To converse with historians is 
to keep good company. 10. Music hath charm to soothe the savage 
breast. 11. It is cowardly to tell a lie. 12. I should like to go 
home. 13. The captain ordered the soldiers to march. 14. He 
went to see the fire. 15. The right course is to listen to nature. 
16. To have ideas is to gather flowers; to think is to weave them 
into garlands. 17. To lose one's temper is to weaken one's power. 
18. To yield is often a mark of strength. 19. Some questions are 
difficult to answer. 20. It is not his intention to come here to 
idle away his time. 21. He is anxious to succeed. 22. It is 
often a mark of strength to yield. 23. They who think least are 
most ready to talk. 24. He expects to win the prize. 25. Have 
you time to hear me? 26. We invited him to call. 27. I tried 
to remember his name. 28. We expect him to win the prize. 
29. This rule is to be observed. 30. Every man desires to live 
long, but no man would be old. 31. He is ready to return. 



VERBALS— THE PARTICIPLE 31 

THE PARTICIPLE 

100. A participle is a word that is derived from a 
verb and that partakes of the functions of a verb and of 
an adjective. 

101. In its adjective nature, a participle modifies a noun 
or a pronoun, and it may take, at the same time, the 
modifiers of a verb; and when derived from a transitive 
verb, it takes an object. In the sentence, "I saw the farmer 
chasing the Redcoats down the lane," chasing is a partici- 
ple, used as an adjective modifying farmer; at the same 
time, it takes the object Redcoats and is modified by the 
adverbial phrase down the lane. 

102. A participle with its modifiers is called a parti- 
cipial phrase. 

103. The participle has three forms: present, past, and 
compound. 

104. The present participle is formed by adding -ing 
to the simple form of the verb, expressing the action or 
state as being in progress, and, hence, incomplete; as, 
"The flowers growing in the valley were refreshed by the 
shower." 

105. The past participle expresses the action or state 
as completed; as,"Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again." 

106. The compound participle expresses the action 
as having been completed before the time represented by 
the verb in the sentence; as, "Having finished his work, 
he went home." 

107. The compound participle is formed by prefixing 
being, having, or having been to the present or the perfect 
participle of a verb; as, having written, having been writing, 
having been written. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Uses of the Participle 
108. A participle may be used — 
i. As an adjective modifying a noun; as, "The stars, 
twinkling in the sky, had the appearance of large diamonds." 

2. As an adjective modifying a pronoun; as, "Having 
packed his trunk, he was ready to start." 

3. Independently; as, "The sun having risen, we pro- 
ceeded on our way. 

In such expressions as, "The twinkling stars," "The whistling 
wind," etc., twinkling and whistling may be regarded as participial 
adjectives. 

Exercise 20 

Point out the participles and tell whether they are used 
as adjectives or independently, and state what those that 
are used as adjectives modify. Point out the modifiers of 
the participles and name the objects of those that have 
objects. 

1. Words once uttered cannot be recalled. 2. The bird sitting on 
the limb is a robin. 3. He was placed in a room containing a 
chair and having a floor lined with iron. 4. The design, drawn 
and painted by hand, was painted on each piece of china. 5. See- 
ing a crowd in the street, he ran to the door. 6. Surrounded by- 
familiar faces, he breathed freely again. 7. The boy, having 
finished his task, went to play. 8. Having finished his work, he 
left early. 9. This being true, your whole argument fallj. 10. 
Flocks of birds, wheeling around the lighthouse and blinded by the 
light, dashed themselves to death against the glass. 11. Words 
poured forth from burning hearts are sure to kindle the 
hearts of others. 12. Firmly built with rafters of oak, the house 
of the farmer stood on the side of the hill commanding the sea. 

13. The army, defeated but not vanquished, slowly fell back. 

14. The girl standing yonder won the prize. 15. How can a man 
cradled in luxury's lap look without pity upon the scene?. 16. I am 
now ready to teach, having carefully studied the subject. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 33 

Exercise 21 

Copy the verbal nouns, the infinitives, and the participles, 
arranging verbal nouns in the first column, infinitives in 
the second, and participles in the third, and be prepared 
to tell the use of each : 

1. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 2. He 
stood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness of the sun. 

3. If you do not wish a man to do a thing, get him to talk about it. 

4. The weary wanderers rested, their journey having been completed. 

5. They spent the evening in playing games. 6. He hears his 
daughter's voice singing in the village choir. 7. He is engaged in 
footing up the account. 8. Heaped in the hollow of the grove, the 
withered leaves lie dead. 9. Ill health was the cause of his retiring. 
10. He hears the parson pray and preach. 11. There was no 
difficulty in finding the place. 12. I like to look on a scene like 
this. 13. Looking out of the window, I saw a bird perched upon 
the edge of its nest. 14. While I lay musing on my pillow, I heard 
the sound of little feet pattering outside of the door. 15. It is 
human nature to delight in exciting admiration. 16. Conceit 
is the most incurable disease known to the human soul. 17. Grant, 
determined and persevering, had carried on a vigorous, daring, 
and offensive campaign. 18. A penny saved is a penny earned. 
19. To be good is to be happy. 20. There is no time to waste. 
21. I came to save, not to destroy. 22. Living is not breathing; 
it is acting. 23. He arrived too late to catch the train. 24. To 
tell you the truth, I do not like him. 25. Genius is an immense 
capacity for taking pains. 26. I hope to hear from you soon. 
27. To be frank with you, I do not like his appearance. 28. He 
was anxious to make a start. 29. To converse with historians 
is to keep good company. 30. Flee from the wrath to come. 
31. They came to scoff; they remained to pray. 32. It is a great 
thing to be beloved by one's country. 33. It is a grand thing to 
make something beautiful. 34. I did not think of his going so 
soon. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO USE 

109. With respect to use, sentences are divided into 
four classes: declarative, interrogative, imperative, ancl 
exclamatory. 



34 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

110. A declarative sentence is a sentence that 
asserts something. 

Example: Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be 
sought. 

111. An interrogative sentence is a sentence that 
asks a question. 

Example: Can gray hairs make folly venerable? 

112. An imperative sentence is a sentence that ex- 
presses a command or an entreaty. 

Example: Never put off until tomorrow what you can 
do today. 

113. An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that 
expresses strong emotion. 

Example: How are the mighty fallen? 

Composition 

Write five declarative sentences; five interrogative sentences; 
three imperative sentences; and three exclamatory sentences. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM 

114. With respect to form, sentences are divided into 
three classes: simple, compound, and complex. 

The Simple Sentence 

115. A simple sentence is a sentence that contains 
but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which 
may be compound. 

Example : Close attention and perseverance can conquer 
even natural defects. 

Compound Elements 

116. To avoid repetition, two or more simple sentences 
may be contracted into one simple sentence that has— 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS 35 



1. A compound subject. 

Industry is essential to success. 
Eneigy is essential to success. 
Good sense is essential to success. 



1= 



Industry, energy, and good sense are essential to success. 
2. A compound predicate verb. 



Napoleon rose. 
Napoleon reigned. 
Napoleon fell. 

Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell. 



I- 



3. A compound object. 



He saw you. 
He saw 
He saw 



you. ^ 
him. V = 
me. ) 



He saw you, him, and me. 

4. A compound complement. 

Washington was a soldier. ) _ 
Washington was a statesman, j ~~ 

Washington was a soldier and statesman, 

5. Compound adjective modifiers. 

Glass is hard. } 

Glass is brittle. V = 

Glass is transparent. ) 

Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 
G. Compound adverbial modifiers. 

He stated his case frankly. > 

He stated his case clearly. ) ~ 

He stated his case frankly and clearly. 

A beaver can live on the land. 
A beaver can live in the water. 

A beaver can live on the land or in the water. 



U 



36 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

7. A compound indirect object. 

The manager gave him a ticket to the entertainment. ) 
The manager gave me a ticket to the entertainment. j 

The manager gave him and me a ticket to the entertainment. 

117. Compound elements may be separated by inter- 
vening words or phrases; as, "The natives of Ceylon build 
houses of the trunks of cocoanut palms, and thatch the roofs 
with leaves." In this sentence, build and thatch is the 
compound predicate. 

Exercise 22 

Copy the following sentences, contracting each set into 
one simple sentence, and be prepared to tell whether the 
compound element is a subject, an attribute complement, 
an object, an adjective- or an adverbial modifier: 

1. Grant was a soldier. 
Grant was an author. 
Grant was a statesman. 

2. Pure thoughts elevate a man. 
Good deeds elevate a man. 
Noble aspirations elevate a man. 

3. The pavement is cold. 
The pavement is damp. 

4. Where shall I find money? 
Where shall I find friends? 
Where shall I find hope ? 
Where shall I find happiness ? 

Where shall I find a clean conscience? 

5. The dancing rivulet is an incessant worker. 
The purling rivulet is an incessant worker. 
The sparkling rivulet is an incessant worker. 

6. She plays on the piano. 
She plays on the organ. 
She plays on the violin. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS 37 

7. The boy is obedient to his parents. 
The boy is respectful to his teacher. 

8. In the best books great men talk to us. 

In the best books great men give us their most precious 

thoughts. 
In the best books great men pour their souls into ours. 

9. Love for study is an important trait of character. 

A desire to do right is an important trait of character. 
Carefulness in choosing our companions is an important 
trait of character. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

118. Independent elements are those words and phrases 
that have no grammatical relation to other words in the 
sentence. 

119, They are— 

i. Nouns of address; as, 'The fault, dear Brutus, is not 
in our stars." 

2. By exclamation; as, "Christmas! What memories 
cluster around the day." 

3 Independent words and phrases; as, "The newspaper 
is, in fact, the people's book." 

Words and phrases nearly independent, such as in fact, no 
doubt, however, therefore, etc., do not modify any particular word 
or phrase, but rather, like the modal adverb, modify the sentence 
as a whole. 

4. Independent infinitive phrases; as, "To confess the 
truth, I was wrong." 

5. Independent with a participle ; as, "The debt having 
been paid, the mortgage was cancelled." The debt having 
been paid logically modifies the verb was cancelled, by 
assigning the reason for cancelling the mortgage, but as 
it is loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, it is 
called the independent absolute construction. 



38 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

ORDER OF ELEMENTS 

120. In a declarative sentence, the subject usually pre- 
cedes the verb, and the object or complement follows the 
verb. This is called the natural order, 

(subject) (verb) (object) 

Example : Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 

121. For emphasis, a word or phrase is sometimes placed 
out of its natural position in the sentence. This is called 
the transposed order. 

(complement) (verb) (subject) 

Example: A mighty man was he. 

In the natural order, the prepositional phrase follows the word 
it modifies, but for emphasis, it is often transposed. When 
there are two or more phrases modifying the same word, it is 
generally better to transpose one or more of the phrases; as, "In a 
long ramble of the kind, on a fine autumnal day, Rip had uncon- 
sciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the Kaatskill 
mountains." 

122. The subject of an interrogative sentence usually 
follows the verb, or is placed between the parts of a verb 
phrase. 

(verb) (subject) 

Example: Where are the birds now? 

nsr) <*>**> r v "fb pal ) 

Example: Why do leaves fall face downward? 

123. When an interrogative pronoun is the subject, the 
elements are usually in their natural order. 

(subject) (verb) (object) 

Example: Who did the work? 

124. The subject of an imperative sentence is usually 
you understood. 

Example: (You) Let us go too. 

125. When a sentence is introduced by there, the subject 
is placed after the verb. 



ORDER OF ELEMENTS 39 

(verb) (subject) 

Example: There were giants in those days. 

12-6. In sentences of this kind, there is neither the sub- 
ject nor a modifier. It is used to introduce the sentence 
in order to throw the subject after the verb for emphasis 
or euphony, and in analyzing is called an expletive. 

127. It is often used to introduce a sentence and the 
real subject is placed after the verb. 

Example : // is easy to find fault ; that is, 

(subject) (verb) 

(It) to find fault is easy. 

In sentences of this kind, it, like there, is used to introduce the 
sentence, and, like there, in analyzing is called the apparent sub- 
ject, or by some, an expletive. 

Some authorities call it the subject and to find fan,,, an apposi- 
tive of it. 

128. In analyzing, a sentence should be changed to the 
natural order of a declarative sentence. 

Example: Great and marvelous are Thy works (trans- 
posed order). Thy works are great and marvelous (natural 
order) . 

Exercise 23 

Change the following sentences to the natural order, and 
point out the complete subject and the complete predicate : 

1. Gay with the clustered flowers of the locust are the woods. 
2. Is there enough for all ? 3. How beautiful is white-winged peace ! 
4. There is no royal road to learning. 5. How swiftly pass a 
thousand years! 6. Whom did you call for? 7. Sweet is the 
breath of morn. 8. The noblest acquisition of man is speech. 
9. Here come the boys. 10. In my Father's house are 'many 
mansions. 11. Slowly and sadly they laid him down. 12. Silent 
and soft and slow descends the snow. 13. From Clive's first visit 
to India, dates the political ascendency of the English in that 
country. 14. The sweetest type of heaven is home. 15. Great 
and marvelous are Thy works! 16. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 
17. How beautiful is night! 



40 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

129. Analysis is the process of separating a sentence 
into its elements or parts. 

130. To analyze a simple sentence — 

i. Tell whether it is declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. 

2. Point out the complete subject and the complete 
predicate. 

3. Point out the simple subject, then its modifiers. 

4. Point out the simple predicate, then its objects, 
complements, and modifiers. 

5. Point out the connectives, if any, and tell what they 
connect. 

6. Point out the independent elements, if any. 

Models for Analysis 

1. Knowledge is power. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. Knowledge is the subject, 
and is power is the complete predicate. Is is the simple predicate; 
it is completed by the predicate noun power. 

2. Decision of character outstrips even talent and genius in the 
race for success in life. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. Decision of character 
is the complete subject, and outstrips even talent and genius in the 
race for success in life is the complete predicate. Decision is the 
simple subject ; it is modified by the phrase of character, of which 
of is a preposition, and character is its object. Outstrips is the 
simple predicate; it is modified by talent and genius, a compound 
object, and by the complex adverbial phrase in the race for success 
in life, of which in is a preposition and race is its object. Race 
is modified by the article the and by the complex adjective phrase 
for success in life, of which for is a preposition and success is its 
object. Success is modified* by the phrase in life, of which in is a 
preposition and life is its object. Even is an adjective modify- 
ing talent and genius. And is a conjunction connecting talent 
and genius. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES 41 

3. / believe him to be honest. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. / is the subject, and 
believe him to be honest is the complete predicate. Believe is 
the simple predicate ; it is modified by the infinitive noun phrase 
him to be honest, the direct object. Him is the subject, and 
to be honest is the complete assumed predicate; to be is the 
simple assumed predicate; it is completed by the predicate ad- 
jective honest. 

4. // is good to give thanks unto the Lord. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. (It) to give thanks 
unto the Lord is the complete subject, and is good is the com- 
plete predicate. It is the apparent subject, used to introduce 
the sentence. To give is the simple subject; it is modified by 
thanks, the direct object, and by the adverbial phrase unto the 
Lord, of which unto is a preposition and Lord is its object. Lord 
is modified by the article the. Is is the simple predicate; it is 
completed by the predicate adjective good. 

5. Whom did you ask for? 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. The declarative form 
is, You did ask for whom ? You is the subject, and did ask for 
whom is the complete predicate. Did ask is the simple predicate ; 
it is modified by the phrase for whom, of which for is a preposition 
and whom is its object. 

Sentences for Analysis 

1. Order is heaven's first law. 

2. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 

3. The day is cold and dark and dreary. 

4. The march of the human mind is slow. 

5. How swiftly pass a thousand years! 

6. The odor of the flowers was pleasant. 

7. Every flower is a hint of God's mercy. 

8. There came to the beach an exile of Erin. 

9. Words are but pictures of our thoughts. 

10. Expositions are the timekeepers of progress. 

11. Eloquence is a painting of the thoughts. 

12. Fear is a wonderful goad to remorse. 

13. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 

14. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

15. Texas is the largest state in the Union. 



42 ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 

16. The curfew tolled the knell of parting day. 

17. In a multitude of counselors there is safety. 

18. The swiftly forming clouds foretold a storm. 

19. The spirit of true religion is kind and cheerful. 

20. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

21. Simplicity must be the first element of literary art. 

22. All God's perfections are but modifications of His love. 

23. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians. 

24. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions. 

25. To crown comfort with beauty is the daughter's province. 

26. To punish crime quickly and severely is the best policy. 

27. Only the foolish and the dead never change their opinions. 

28. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated again. 

29. Music hath charms to soothe a savage breast. 

30. Success being hopeless, preparations were made for a 

retreat. 

31. The actions of men are the best interpreters of their thoughts. 

32. Close attention and perseverance can conquer even natural 

defects. 

33. The farmers are the founders of civilization and prosperity. 

34. Deeds of justice and charity are the very first fruits of 

repentance. 

35. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity 

of vibration. 

36. Our knowledge is the amassed thought and experience of 

innumerable minds. 

37. The deep blue sky contrasted pleasantly with the dark 

green foliage. 

38. The history of the Anglo-Saxon race is emphatically the 

history of progress. 

39. There are thousands of years between the stone hatchet and 

the machine shop. 

40. Finding myself suddenly deprived of the company and 

pleasures of the town, I grew melancholy. 

41. A wide -spreading, hopeful disposition is your only true 

umbrella in this vale of tears. 

42. The winds and the waves are always on the side of the 

ablest navigators. 

43. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom ip> the knowledge of 

our own ignorance. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 43 

44. The welfare of the nation depends upon the enterprise and 

frugality of the people. 

45. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of 

preserving peace. 

46. An abstract of title is an epitome of the evidences of owner- 

ship. 

47. The whole journey of life is a continued series of checks, 

disappointments, and sorrows. 

48. Frugality may be termed the daughter of prudence, the 

sister of temperance, and the parent of liberty. 

49. At noon, then, having dismissed the smaller ones for their 

big recess, he was standing amid the eager upturned 
faces of the others. 

50. Under the benignant influence of peace and liberty, science 

has flourished, and has been applied to practical purposes. 

51. The howling of the wolf and the shrill screaming of the 

panther were mingled in nightly concert with the war- 
hoop of the savages. 

52. Candor is the seal of a noble mind, the ornament and pride 

of man, the sweetest charm of woman, the scorn of rascals, 
and the rarest virtue of sociability. 

The Complex Sentence 

131. A complex sentence is a sentence that contains 
one principal and one or more subordinate clauses. 

Examples: He who sets a good example is great. We 
visited the city where Columbus was born. 

In the first sentence, who sets a good example is a subordinate 
clause, modifying the pronoun he, and in the second sentence, 
where Columbus was born is a subordinate clause, modifying the 
noun city. The words who and where connect the subordinate 
with the principal clause. 

132. A principal clause is a clause that does not 
depend on any word in the sentence for its meaning. 

133. A subordinate clause is a clause that depends on 
some word in the sentence for its meaning. 

134- Subordinate clauses are divided into three classes; 
noun, adjective, and adverbial. 



44 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

The Noun Clause 

135. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun. 

136. A noun clause may be used as — 

i. The subject of a verb; as, "That the world is full of 
beauty cannot be denied." 

2. The object of a verb; as, "I know that he is strictly 
honest." 

3 The predicate complement; as, "My earnest wish is 
thai you may succeed." 

4 The object of a preposition; as, "There was some 
misunderstanding about who should be invited." 

5. In apposition; as, "The report that the ship was lost 
was false." 

137. The noun clause may be introduced by— 

1. The relative pronouns who, which, or what. 
Example: I do not know who did it. 

2. The conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, or how, etc. 
Example: I do not know when he will go. 

3. The subordinate conjunctions whether, that, etc. 
Example: I do not know whether he will succeed. 

The conjunction that is often omitted. Thus, "I know the 
book will please you"=:'T know that the book will please you." 

When the noun clause is introduced by the relative pronouns 
who or which, or by their compounds whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, or whichsoever, the antecedent of the relative is understood. 
Thus, "I know who did it" = "I know the person who did it." 

The relative what is equivalent to that which, the thing which, 
etc., and hence embraces both the antecedent and the relative 
in itself. 

Composition 

Write three sentences containing a noun clause used, respectively : 
as the subject; as the predicate complement; as the object of a 
verb ; as the object of a preposition ; as an appositive. 



THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 45 

Exercise 24 

Tell whether the noun clauses are used as subjects, 
objects, predicate complements, objects of prepositions, or 
in apposition : 

1. We all believe that the earth is round. 2. The fact that 
the world is round is no longer doubted. 3. My opinion is that he 
is wrong. 4. No one can tell how this matter will end. 5. The 
doctrine that all men are created equal is disputed by many. 

6. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 

7. We still cherish the hope that he will return. 8. Tell me why 
you are sad. 9. Johnson declared that wit consists in finding out 
resemblances. 10. Whether I am right or not God only knows. 
11. I do not know where he lives. 12. I do not know who he is. 
13. Whosoever would be happy must be just. 14. I do not know 
whence it cometh or whither it goeth. 15. His objection is that 
you are too young. 16. It is evident that he is the thief. 17. He 
showed me where the wild flowers grow. 

The Adjective Clause 

138. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjec- 
tive. 

Example: The man who feels truly noble will become so. 
In this sentence, who feels truly noble is an adjective clause 
modifying the noun man, telling what man. 

139. An adjective clause may be introduced by — 
i. The relative pronouns that, who, or which. 
Example : I admire a boy who has manliness and courage. 
2. The conjunctive adverbs where, when, or why. 
Example : I do not know the reason why he did not come. 

As, usually an adverb or a conjunction, is used as a relative 
pronoun after such, same, and many; as, "Tears, such as angels 
weep, burst forth." 

The Adverbial Clause 

140. An adverbial clause is a clause used as an adverb. 
Example : The battle was lost before reinforcements could 

be sent. 



46 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

An adverbial clause usually modifies a verb; frequently an 
adjective; and sometimes an adverb. 

141. An adverbial clause may be introduced by a sub- 
ordinate conjunction or by a conjunctive adverb. It may 
express — 

i. Time; as, "Make hay while the sun shines." 

2. Place; as, "He lay where he fell" 

3. Manner; as, "He does as he pleases" 

4. Cause or reason; as, "No one despises him because 
he is poor" 

5. Degree or comparison; as, "He is so dishonest that 
no one believes him." 

6. End or purpose; as, "He came that he might see for 
himself." 

7. Result or effect; as, "He ran so fast that he was out 
of breath" 

8. Condition or concession; as, "// you have tears, prepare 
to shed them now." 

Exercise 25 

Point out the adjective and the adverbial clauses, tell 
what each modifies, and what the adverbial clauses express : 

1. Confidence cannot dwell where Selfishness is porter at the 
gate. 2. When you face a difficulty, never let it stare you out 
of countenance. 3. The man who escapes censure is fortunate. 
4. Freely we serve because we freely love. 5. This is the season 
when the days are shortest. 6. The house where we live is sixty 
years old. 7. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 
8. They met him in Florence, where he spent the winter. 9. Gone 
are the birds that were our summer guests. 10. Childhood 
shows the man as morning shows the day. 11. No fountain is 
so small that heaven may not be imaged on its bosom. 12. It was 
necessary to halt for two days that the army might collect food. 

13. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 

14. Whither thou goest, I will go. 15. Flowers are the sweetest 
things that God ever made. 16. If the blind lead the blind, both shall 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 47 

fall into the ditch. 17. Where the leader of the flock goes, the sheep 
follow. 18. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty overtakes 
him. 19. Blessings brighten as they take their flight. 20. The 
song that we hear with our ears is only the song that is sung in our 
hearts. 21. If you would succeed in your business, be punctual 
in observing your engagements. 22. When the righteous are in 
authority, the people rejoice. 

Analysis of Complex Sentences 

142. To analyze a complex sentence — 
i. Determine whether it is declarative, interrogative, 
imperative, or exclamatory. 

2. Point out the principal clause. 

3. Point out the subordinate clause or clauses. 

4. Analyze the principal clause as if it were a simple 
sentence. 

5. Tell how the subordinate clauses are used, and analyze 
each as if it were a simple sentence. 

Models for Analysis 

6. I heard what he said. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. / heard is the principal 
clause, and what he said is the subordinate clause. / is the subject 
of the principal clause, and heard is the predicate. What he said 
is a noun clause used as the object of the verb heard. He is the 
subject of the subordinate clause, and said what is the complete 
predicate. Said is the simple predicate; it is modified by what, 
the direct object. 

J. Character carries with it an influence that commands the con 
fidence and respect of mankind. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. Character carries with 
it an influence is the principal clause, and that commands the con- 
fidence and respect of mankind is the subordinate clause. Character 
is the subject of the principal clause, and carries with it an influence 
is the complete predicate. Carries is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by influence, the direct object, and by the adverbial phrase 
with it, of which with is a preposition and it is its object. A wis an 



48 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

article modifying influence. That commands the confidence and re- 
spect of mankind is an adjective clause modifying influence. That 
is the subject of the subordinate clause, and commands the confi- 
dence and respect of mankind is the complete predicate. Commands 
is the simple predicate; it is modified by confidence and respect, 
a compound object. Confidence and respect are modified by the 
article the and by the phrase of mankind, of which of is a preposi- 
tion and mankind is its object. And is a conjunction connecting 
confidence and respect. 

8. Nothing is more powerful than silence. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. Nothing is more power- 
ful is the principal clause, and than silence (is powerful) is the sub- 
ordinate clause. Nothing is the subject of the principal clause, 
and is more powerful is the complete predicate. Is is the simple 
predicate; it is completed by the predicate adjective powerful. 
More is an adverb modifying powerful. Than silence (is powerful) 
is an adverbial clause of degree modifying the predicate adjective 
powerful. Silence is the subject of the subordinate clause, and is 
powerful (understood) is the complete predicate. /5 is the simple 
predicate; it is completed by the predicate adjective powerful. 
Than is a conjunction connecting the subordinate with the princi- 
pal clause. 

Q. I was so tired that I could not walk. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 1 was so tired is the 
principal clause, and that I could not walk is the subordinate clause. 
/ is the subject of the principal clause, and was so tired is the 
complete predicate. Was is the simple predicate; it is completed 
by the predicate adjective tired. So is an adverb modifying tired. 
That I could not walk is an adverbial clause of degree modifying 
so. I is the subject of the subordinate clause, and could not walk 
is the complete predicate. Could walk is the simple predicate; it 
is modified by the adverb not. That is a conjunction connecting 
the subordinate with the principal clause. 

io. There were never yet hearts or skies clouds might not wander 
through. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. There were never yet 
hearts or skies is the principal clause, and clouds might not wander 
through is the subordinate clause. Hearts or skies is the compound 
subject of the principal clause, and were never yet is the complete 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 49 

predicate. There is an expletive used to introduce the sentence. 
Or is a conjunction connecting hearts and skies. Were is the simple 
predicate; it is modified by the adverbs never and yet. Clouds 
might not wander through is an adjective clause modifying hearts 
and skies. Clouds is the subject of the subordinate clause, and 
might not wander through (which) is the complete predicate. Might 
wander is the simple predicate; it is modified by the adverb not 
and by the phrase through (which). Which is a relative pronoun 
used as the object of the preposition through; it also joins the 
adjective clause to hearts and skies, the antecedents of the relative. 

Sentences For Analysis 

1. He announced that the train was late. 

2. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

3. Flowers are the sweetest things God ever made. 

4. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

5. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

6. After the tempest has passed, the calm will come. 

7. They who think least are the most ready to talk. 

8. We can easily prove that the earth is a sphere. 

9. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

10. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

11. He who has made an enemy has done a sad day's work. 

12. No one knows the stars who has not slept beneath them. 

13. If the blind lead the blind, both will fall into the ditch. 

14. When the righteous are in authority the people rejoice. 

15. Where the leader of the flock goes, the sheep will follow. 

16. The general's command was that we be ready to march at 

dawn. 

17. The man who conquers selfishness gains in breadth of 

character. 

18. That the sun is a globe of molten matter is generally believed. 

19. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many borrowed 

words. 

20. They who are moderate in their expectations meet with 

few disappointments. 

21. The opinion that the soul is immortal has been almost 

universally entertained. 

22. I hope that you will remember that character is more 

precious than gold. 



50 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

23. He is a fool that provides not for that which will most cer- 

tainly come. 

24. If a man empties his purse into his head, no man can take 

it from him. 

25. The man who lives but for his own sake is lower than the 

beasts. 

26. Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bountifully 

to the hands of industry. 

27. Every action of our lives touches on some chord that will 

vibrate in eternity. 

28. The song that we hear with our ears is only the song that 

is sung in our hearts. 

29. If our efforts were only half as ardent as our hopes, how 

smooth would be the path to accomplishment. 

30. Faith that asks no questions kills the soul and stifles the 

intellect. 

31. When the sun of that day went down, the event of independ- 

ence was no longer doubtful. 

32. If we show negligence in small matters, we endanger our 

success in larger affairs. 
33". It is said that the two happiest days of a man's life are the 
day when he accepts a high office and the day when he 
resigns it. 

34. A man of real merit is never seen in so favorable light as 

through the medium of adversity. 

35. It is always right that a man should be able to render a 

reason for the faith that is within him. 

36. The characteristic peculiarity of Pilgrim's Progress is that 

it is the only work of the kind that possesses a strong 
human interest. 

The Compound Sentence 

143. A compound sentence is a sentence that con- 
sists of two or more independent clauses. 

Examples: Talent is something, but tact is everything. 
Science tunnels mountains, it spans continents, it bridges 
seas, and it weighs the stars. 

144. The clauses of which compound sentences are 
formed are called members. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 51 

145. The members of. a compound sentence are usually 
connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, expressed or 
understood; sometimes, however, there is no connective, 
but the relation is so close that the clauses are regarded as 
parts of a compound sentence; as, "Suspicion always 
haunts the guilty mind; the thief doth fear each bush 
an officer." 

146. Any or all of the members of a compound sentence 
may be complex; as, "The evil that men do lives after 
them, but the good is oft interred with their bones." This 
is a compound sentence, the first member of which is com- 
plex, consisting of the principal clause, the evil lives after 
them, and the subordinate adjective clause, that men do, 
which modifies evil. The second member, the good is oft 
interred with their bones, is a simple sentence. Sentences 
of this kind may be called compound-complex sentences. 

Care should be exercised in forming compound sentences. 
Young persons are likely to join sentences that have no relation ; 
as, "The cow jumped over the moon, and Johnny has a pair of new 
boots." 

147. Compound sentences may be formed by uniting — 
i. Sentences in which there is a similarity of meaning 

or a continuation of the same line of thought. 

Examples: The heavens declare the glory of God, and 
the firmament showeth his handiwork. The soft drops 
of rain pierce the hard marble; many strokes overthrow 
the tallest oaks. 

And is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are besides, likewise, otherwise, moreover, further, furthermore. 

2. Sentences in which the thoughts are in contrast. 

Example: Circumstances are beyond the control of 
man, but his conduct is in his own power. 

But is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are still, yet, notwithstanding, however, nevertheless. 



52 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

3. Sentences presenting thoughts between which one 
must make a choice. 

Example : You must learn the value of time, or you will 
not succeed in any undertaking. 

Or is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are nor, else, otherwise, neither, either. 

4. Sentences expressing inference, consequence, cause, 
or effect. 

Example: It will rain soon, for the wind is from the west. 
For is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Otheis are therefore, hence, consequently, wherefore, whereas, so, 
hus, accordingly, so that. 

Composition 

Write a compound sentence connected by and; one connected 
by but; one connected by or; one connected by neither. 

Write two compound-complex sentences connected by and; 
two connected by but. 

Analysis of Compound Sentences 

148. To analyze a compound sentence — 

1. Tell whether it is declarative, interrogative, or impera- 
tive. 

2. Separate it into its members. 

3. Analyze each member as a simple or a complex 
sentence. 

Models for Analysis 

11. Then came the laborers home from the Held, and serenely the 
iun sank down to his rest, and twilight prevailed. 

This is a compound declarative sentence. Then came the 
laborers home from the field is the first member, serenely the sun sank 
down to his rest is the second member, and twilight prevailed is the 
third member. The laborers is the complete subject of the first 
member, and came home from the field then is the complete predicate. 
Laborers is the simple subject; it is modified by the article the. 
Came is the simple predicate ; it is modified by the adverb then and 



ANALYSIS OP COMPOUND SENTENCES 53 

by the adverbial phrases (to) home and from the field. To (under- 
stood) is a preposition and home is its object ; from is a preposition 
and field is its object. Field is modified by the article the. The sun 
is the complete subject of the second member, and sank down to his 
rest serenely is the complete predicate. Sun is the simple subject; 
it is modified by the article the. Sank is the simple predicate; 
it is modified by the adverbs down and serenely and by the adverbial 
phrase to his rest, of which to is a preposition and rest is its object. 
Rest is modified by the possessive pronoun his. 

Twilight is the subject of the third member, and prevailed is 
the predicate. 

The first and is a conjunction joining the first and second 
members; the second and is a conjunction joining the second and 
third members. 

12. / cannot go, but I will send all that is necessary for their 
comfort. 

This is a compound-complex declarative sentence. / cannot go 
is the first member, and / will send all that is necessary for their 
comfort is the second member. The first member is a simple sen- 
tence. / is the subject, and cannot go is the predicate. The 
second member is a complex sentence. / will send all is the principal 
clause, and that is necessary for their comfort is the subordinate 
clause. / is the subject of the principal clause, and will send 
all is the complete predicate. Will send is the simple predicate; 
it is modified by all, the direct object. That is necessary for their 
comfort is an adjective clause modifying all. That is the subject, 
and is necessary for their comfort is the complete predicate. Is is 
the simple predicate; it is completed by the predicate adjective 
necessary. Necessary is modified by the adverbial phrase for their 
comfort, of which for is a preposition and comfort is its object 
Comfort is modified by the possessive pronoun their. But is a con 
junction joining the two members. 

Note. — Care should be exercised to distinguish between a com- 
pound sentence and a complex sentence having a compound subor- 
dinate clause. Thus, the sentence, "Recollect that trifles make per- 
fection, and that perfection is no trifle," is not a compound sentence, 
but a complex sentence, of which (you) recollect is the principal 
clause, and that trifles make perfection, and that perfection is no 
trifle is a compound subordinate clause, used as the direct object 
of recollect. 



54 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Sentences for Analysis 

1. Courage is admirable, but patience is powerful. 

2. The earth revolves, yet we do not feel its motion. 

3. Patience is a bitter seed, but it yields rich fruit. 

4. Concession is no humiliation; compromise is often neces- 

sary. 

5. Tell me with whom you associate, and I will tell you what 

you are. • 

6. Straws float upon the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom 

of the stream. 

7. Circumstances are beyond the control of man, but his con- 

duct is in his own power. 

8. Labor is the divine law of our existence ; repose is desertion 

and suicide. 

9. It is always too early to commit a fault, but it is never too 

late to endeavor its redress. 

10. The hearts of men are their books; events are their tutors; 

great actions are their eloquence. 

11. Modesty is one of the sweetest and most desirable qualities 

one can possess, yet too much modesty hinders advance- 
ment. 

12. If we work upon marble, it will perish; if we work upon 

brass, time will efface it; if we rear temples, they will 
crumble into dust. 

13. Friends may desert him; enemies may throng his 

way; disaster may threaten him; bodily weakness may 
assail him, but still with heroic courage he keeps on his 
way. 

14. We yielded to their prayers for pardon; we released them 

from the blockade; we made peace with them when con- 
quered, and we afterwards held them under our protec- 
tion. 

15. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy repre- 

sents a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and 
follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural life; 
and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 

Miscellaneous Sentences for Analysis 

1. It is well to think well; it is divine to act well. 

2. To expect to succeed without effort is the greatest folly. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 55 

3. The paths of virtue are always those of pleasantness and 

peace. 

4. Were patrons more disinterested, ingratitude would be 

more rare. 

5. The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be conscious of none. 

6. We should be as careful of our words as of our actions. 

7 It is some compensation for great evils that they enforce 
great lessons. 

8. Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a 

thousand bayonets. 

9. To have ideas is to gather flowers; to think is to weave them 

into garlands. 

10. A wonderful castle, tall and grand, was built on a hill beside 

the beautiful Rhine. 

11. They have rights who dare maintain them. 

12. There must be work done by the arms or none of us could 

live. 

13. Write it on your heart that every day is the very best day in 

the year. 

14. It is the bit of truth in every slander, the hint of likeness 

in every caricature, that makes us smart. 

15. The larger trees he had girdled and killed in order that their 

foliage should not cast a shade. 

16. Until a man can truly enjoy a draught of clear water bub- 

bling from the mountain-side, his taste is in an unwhole- 
some state. 

17. No instrument of man's devising can reach the heart as 

does that most wonderful instrument, the human voice. 

18. Education is the one living fountain which must water 

every part of the social garden, or its beauty withers and 
fades away. 

19. Strive to keep alive in your heart that little spark of celes- 

tial fire called conscience. 

20. No one is so blind to his own faults as a man who has the 

habit of detecting the faults of others. 

21. By constant attention to the ethical qualities of all our 

words and actions, we form the habit of obeying con- 
science in all things. 

22. Where there is no honest poverty, where education is 

diffused and political intelligence is common, it is easy 
for the mass of the people to elect a fair legislature. 



56 ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 

23. If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers 

and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God ; 
if their names were not found in the registers of the 
heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life; if 
their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train 
of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge 
over them. 

24. We can almost fancy that we are visiting him (Milton) in 

his small lodging ; that we see him sitting at the old organ 
beneath the faded green hangings; that we can catch 
the quick twinkle of his eyes rolling in vain to find the 
day; that we are reading in the lines of his noble counte- 
nance the proud and mournful history of his glory and 
his affliction. 



Test Questions 

1. What is a modifier? 2. According to form, modifiers are 
divided into how many classes ? 3. What is a phrase ? Give an ex- 
ample. 4. What is a prepositional phrase ? Give an example. 5. Give 
an example of a prepositional phrase used as an adjective modifier. 6. 
Give an example of a prepositional phrase used as an adverbial modifier. 
7. What is a clause ? 8. Give an example of a clause used as an ad- 
jective modifier. 9. Give an example of a clause used as an adverbial 
modifier. 10. What is an appositive ? Give an example. 11. What 
is a verbal? 12. Into what classes may verbals be divided? 13. What 
is a verbal noun? 14. Illustrate the use of the verbal noun as (a) the 
subject; (b) the predicate complement; (c) the object of a verb; (d) 
the object of a preposition. 15. What is an infinitive? 16. Illustrate 
the use of the infinitive as (a) a noun; (b) an adjective; (c) an adverb; 
(d) an assumed predicate. 17. What is a participle ? Give an example. 
18. What is an expletive ? Illustrate. 19. Illustrate the use of it as 
the apparent subject of a sentence. 20. What is a complex sentence ? 
Give an example. 21. Give a sentence containing a noun clause used 
as (a) the subject; (b) the object of a verb; (c) the predicate comple- 
ment. 22. What is the natural position of the subordinate clause in a 
complex sentence? 23. Give an example of a complex sentence con- 
taining a transposed subordinate clause. 24. What is a compound 
sentence? Give an example. 25. What is a compound-complex 
sentence? Give an example. 



PART III 

PROPERTIES AND SYNTAX OF THE 
PARTS OF SPEECH 

1 49. The properties of nouns and pronouns are number, 
gender, person, and case. 

NUMBER 

150. Number is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that shows whether one or more than one is meant. 

151. There are two numbers : the singular and the plural. 

152. The singular number is that form or use of a 
noun or pronoun that denotes one person or thing; as, boy, 
book, he. 

153. The plural number is that form or use of a noun 
or pronoun that denotes more than one person or thing; 
as, boys, books, they. 

Formation of the Plural of Nouns 

154. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding 5 
to the singular; as, book, books; boy, boys. 

155. Nouns whose last sound will not readily unite with 
s form their plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bench, 
benches; fox, foxes. 

156. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form 
their plurals by changing y to i and adding es; as, lady, 
ladies; daisy, daisies. 

157. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their 
plurals by adding s; as, valley, valleys; alley, alleys. 

158. Most nouns ending in / or fe form their plurals by 



58 ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 

changing the / or fe to ve and adding s; as, life, lives; half, 
halves. 

The following nouns ending in / or fe form their plurals by add- 
ing s: chief, brief, proof, grief, strife, roof, hoof, handkerchief, kerchief, 
mischief, safe, scarf, surf, turf 

159. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, 
men; child, children; woman, women; foot, feet; ox, oxen; 
mouse, mice. 

1 60. Nouns ending in o form their plurals by adding 5 
or es. The words piano, portico, banjo, memento, domino, 
and a few others add s; but calico, cargo, potato, tomato, 
tornado, negro, motto, echo, hero, embargo, mosquito, etc., 
add es. 

161. Figures, letters, and signs generally form their 
plurals by adding the apostrophe (') and the letter s; as, 
the 5's and the 9 J s; the i's and the t's; the x's and the -'s. 

162. Words commonly used as other parts of speech 
when used as nouns form their plurals by adding s; as, 
the whys and the wherefores; the ifs and the buts. 

163. News, gallows, and names of sciences ending in ics 
are always singular; as, mathematics, politics, etc. 

164. A few nouns have the same form for both the 
singular and the plural; as, deer, sheep, salmon, mackerel, 
trout, apparatus, series, species, means, riches, pains, etc. 

The number of a noun having the same form for both the 
singular and the plural can be determined only by its meaning 
in the sentence. 

165. The following nouns are always plural: goods, 
measles, morals, trousers, scissors, shears, scales, victuals, 
ashes, nuptials, oats, mumps, and annals. 

166. Many nouns from foreign languages form- their 
plurals according to the rules of those languages; as, 
memorandum, memoranda; formula, formulae; phenomenon, 
phenomena; datum, data; erratum, errata; basis, bases; crisis, 
crises; axis, axes; terminus, termini. 



FORMATION OF PLURALS 



59 



Many of these words in common use have also the English 
plural; as, memorandum, memorandums; formula, formulas. 



Plural of Proper Nouns 

167. Proper nouns usually form their plurals by adding 
s; as, the Washingtons ; the Lincolns. But when the last 
sound will not readily unite with s, the plural is formed 
by adding es; as, the Joneses. 

168. When the name is preceded by a title, either the 
name or the title may be made plural; as, the Miss Browns, 
or the Misses Brown. 

169. When a numeral precedes the title, the name is 
always made plural; as, the two Miss Browns. 

170. When Christian names are used, the title may be 
made plural, or it may be repeated; as the Misses Mary 
and Kate Brown, or Miss Mary and Miss Kate Brown. 

171. When the title precedes different names, the title 
is usually made plural; as, Messrs. Brown and Jones; Drs. 
Smith and Robinson; Mesdames Smith, Baker, and Adams. 

Exercise 26 

Tell whether the following nouns are singular or plural : 



ashes 


sheep 


victuals 


civics 


molasses 


hose 


corps 


wages 


series 


ethics 


mumps 


politics 


archives 


vitals 


goods 


gioss 


deer 


nuptials 


phonetics 


assets 


pincers 


perch 


tidings 


salmon 



Exercise 27 

Write the plural of the following nouns : 

lady valley match wharf 

cupful octavo duty madam 

folio glory ally company 

layman spoonful penalty calico 

theory entry loaf sympathy 



60 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



turkey 


brief 


Miss 


Mr. 


German 


Englishman 


Dutchman 


courtesy 


circus 


library 


reproof 


chimney 


axis 


prospectus 


terminus 


erratum 



GENDER 

172. Gender is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 

173. There are four genders: the masculine, the feminine, 
the common, and the neuter. 

174. The masculine gender denotes males; as, man, 
king, he. 

175. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, woman, 
queen, she. 

176. The common gender denotes males or females, 
or both; as, students, parents, they. 

177. The neuter gender denotes objects without sex; 
as, tree, stone, Boston, it. 

178. When neuter nouns represent objects possessing 
strength, size, sublimity, etc., they are referred to as 
masculine, and when they represent objects possessing 
gentleness, peace, beauty, etc., they are referred to as 
feminine. 

Example : The sun hath no need to boast of his bright- 
ness, nor the moon of her effulgence. 

179. In referring to children or to the lower animals, 
sex is generally disregarded, and the neuter form it is used. 

Example : The child has hurt its hand. 

The tendency of the present day is to use the words author, 
editor, doctor, instructor, singer, lecturer, chairman, poet, and a few 
others to denote persons of either sex. 



Exercise 28 



Tell the gender of the following nouns, and give the 
corresponding feminine of the masculine nouns. 





PERSON 




he 


composition 


clerk 


worker 


nephew 


person 


cashier 


choir 


student 


man 


master 


chair 


widower 


conductor 


cousin 


husband 


count 


host 


bridegroom 


trout 


heir 


artist 


uncle 


actor 


duke 


doctor 


executor 


poet 


brother 


benefactor 


tree 


book 


author 


bookkeeper 


king 


stenographer 



61 



PERSON 

180. Person is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of. 

181. There are three persons: the first, the second, and 
the third. 

182. The first person denotes the speaker. 
Example: / shall be pleased to see you. We shall not 

go for some time. 

183. The second person denotes the person spoken to. 
Examples: James, please lend me your knife. You 

should strive to speak correctly. 

184. The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

Examples: Ridpath was a great historian. He will be 
here soon. 

A noun is in the first person only when in apposition with a 
pronoun in the first person; as, "We, the people of the United 
States, do ordain and establish this Constitution." 

A noun is in the second person only when used in direct address ; 
as, "James, please come here." 



CASE 
185. Case is that form or use of a noun or pronoun that 
indicates its relation to other words in the sentence. 



62 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

186. There are three cases: the nominative, the objective, 
and the possessive. 

187. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case when 
it is used — 

i. As the subject of a verb; as, "Perseverance is the 
road to success." "He is at home." 

2. As a predicate noun or pronoun; as, "Fame is the 
fragrance of heroic deeds." "It is /." 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun in the nomi- 
native case; as, "Robert Burns, the poet, was a Scotchman." 
"This is my brother, he of whom I have often spoken." 

4. Independently, in which it has no real office in the 
sentence. There are two of these constructions in common 
use: 

a. Direct address; as, "Young man, keep your record 
clean." 

b. With a participle; as, "The rain having ceased, we 
pursued our journey." "He having returned, we resumed 
our discussion." 

188. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when 
it is used — 

1. As the direct object of a verb; as, "Every great 
thought alters the world.*' "I saw him." 

2. As the object of a preposition; as, "Every flower is 
a hint of God's mercy." "I have heard of him" 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun in the objec- 
tive case; as, "We heard Mr. Spurgeon, the great London 
preacher." "I saw your brother, him of whom I heard 
you speak." 

4. As the indirect object of a verb; as, "He made Mr. 
Brown a coat." "He gave me a book." 

5. As the subject of an infinitive; as, "I know the 
man to be truthful." "I know him to be truthful." 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS 63 

6. As the predicate complement of an infinitive having 
a subject; as, "I know him to be the right man." "I 
know it to be him." 

7. As the objective complement of a verb; as, "They 
appointed him chairman." 

8. As the adverbial objective, a noun used without 
a preposition to express time, distance, measure, value, 
etc., as, "He walked a mile" "It is worth a dollar." 

189. A noun is in the possessive ease when it is used — 

1. To denote ownership; as, "John's book." 

2. To denote authorship; as, "Webster's dictionary." 

3. Merely to limit another noun; as, "Six months' 
interest is due." 

A noun in the possessive case always modifies another noun 
expressed or understood; as, "John's book was torn." "This book 
is John's (book)." 

SYNTAX OF NOUNS 

190. Syntax is that part of grammar that treats of the 
arrangement, relation, and agreement of words in sentences. 

Since nouns have the same nominative and objective case 
forms, no mistake can be made in their use in these constructions; 
but nouns in the possessive case have distinct forms, and hence, 
require attention. 

Formation of the Possessive Case of Nouns 

191. The possessive case of singular nouns is formed by 
•adding the apostrophe (') and the letter s to the simple 

form of the noun ; as, boy, boy's; book, book's; Brown, Brown's. 
When, however, the addition of the apostrophe and 5 produces 
an unpleasant hissing sound, the apostrophe alone may be used ; as, 
Moses' law; Burns' poems. 

192 Plural nouns ending in 5 form the possessive by 
adding the apostrophe alone; as, ladies' hats; boys' books. 



64 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

193. Plural nouns not ending in 5 form the possessive 
like singular nouns, by adding the apostrophe and s; as 
men's clothing; women's hats; children's shoes. 

194. When two or more nouns denote joint ownership, 
the possessive is formed by adding the sign to the last . 
word only ; as, Barnum & Bailey's circus ; Powers & Lyons' 
publications. 

195. When two or more nouns denote separate owner- 
ship, the sign is added to each noun; as, Webster's and 
Worcester's dictionary; Brown's and Smith's store. 

Observe that in such expressions as ''Brown's and Smith's 
store," the noun store retains the singular form for the reason that 
store is understood after Brown's. "Brown's and Smith's stores " 
would mean that Brown and Smith each own two or more stores. 

196. Compound nouns form the possessive by adding 
the sign of the possessive to the last word only; as, my 
brother-in-law's home; the attorney-general's opinion. 

197. When the possessive is followed by a noun in ap- 
position, or by a prepositional phrase, the sign of the 
possessive is added to the word immediately preceding the 
modified noun; as, David the psalmist's reign; the queen 
of England's reign. 

While it is preferable to add the possessive sign to the appositive 
noun in such expressions as, "I bought the coat at Brown, the 
tailor's," it is also correct to add the possessive sign to both nouns, 
or to the first only; as, "I bought the coat at Brown's, the tailor's," 
or "I bought the coat at Brown's., the tailor." 

1 98. The phrases anybody else, somebody else, nobody else,, 
etc., form the possessive by adding the sign of the possessive 
at the end of the phrase; as, anybody else's hat; somebody 
else's umbrella. 

199. When a noun modifies a verbal noun, it is in the 
possessive case and must have the possessive case form. 

Example: I did not think of John's studying English. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 65 

Exercise 29 

Form the possessives in the following sentences: 
1. Two months interest is due. 2. Have you any doubt of 
Johns coming. 3. He wore an ample cloak of sheeps wool. 4. The 
soldiers tents were guarded while they slept. 5. We carry a com- 
plete line of mens, boys, womens, girls, and childrens shoes. 6. 
James found a lady watch. 7. We received Mr. Jones report 
this morning. 8. We enjoyed Mary, William, and Johns visit 
very much. 9. I did not think of Mary coming so soon. 10. We 
have a full line of teachers registers. 11. The Retail Grocers 
Association meets in Washington in July. 12. Brown & Burns store 
has been sold. 13. I would not take anybody else word for it. 
14. We have both Websters and Worcesters dictionary for refer- 
ence. 15. I bought my watch at Gordons the Jewelers. 16. I 
have both Thackeray and Dickens works in my library. 17. You 
have taken some one else umbrella. 18. Kindness was one of 
Peter the Greats virtues. 19. We take the Ladies Home Journal, 
The Youths Companion and Mclntoshs Monthly. 20. We will 
send the goods on ten days trial. 21. Are you going to attend the 
National Commercial Teachers Federation? 22. I have no time 
to listen to Johns or James talk. 23. He listened neither to the 
physician nor to the lawyers advice. 24. Henry Smith & Bro. 
factory is closed for repairs. 25. Hutchinson Bros, mill will be 
completely remodeled. 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 
200. Declension is the change that pronouns undergo 
to express their relations of person, number, gender, and 
case. 

Simple Personal Pronouns 

FIRST PERSON 
Singular Plural 

Nom. I we 

Poss. my, mine our, ours 

Obj. me us 

SECOND PERSON 

Nom. Thou you 

Poss. thy, thine your, yours 

Obj. thee you 



66 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 





THIRD PERSON 








Singular 






Plural 




Masculine Feminine 


Neuter 


Mas. Fern. Neuter 


Nom. 


he she 


it 




they 


Poss. 


his " her, hers 


its 




their, theirs 


Obj. 


him her 


it 




them 




Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 




Singular 




Plural 




Nom. 


who 




who 




Poss. 


whose 




whose 




Obj. 


whom 




whom 





SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 

201. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
gender, and number. 

Failure to make the pronoun agree with its antecedent, es- 
pecially in number, is a very frequent error; in fact, one of the most 
common violations of the rules of grammar. 

Special Rules 

t . When a pronoun represents two or more antecedents 
connected by and, it must be plural. 

Example : Patience and diligence should have their places 
in every man's character. 

When, however, the antecedents are but different names of 
the same person or thing, the pronoun must be singular; as, "Our 
friend and teacher (one person) has gone to his home." 

2 . When two or more antecedents connected by and are 
preceded by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular. 

Examples: Each day and each hour brings its own duty. 
Every bush and tree is putting forth its leaves. 

3 . When two or more singular antecedents are connected 
by or or nor, the pronoun must be singular. 

Examples : Either Mary or Ellen will lend you her pencil. 
Neither James nor Harry recited his lesson well. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 6*7 

4. When two or more antecedents connected by or or nor 
are of different numbers, the plural should be placed last, 
and the pronoun should agree with it in the plural. 

Examples: If you see him or his friends, tell them that 
I should like to see them. Neither the general nor his 
scldiers felt that they would be defeated. 

5. When two or more antecedents are connected by as 
well as, and also, but not, or similar connectives, the pro- 
noun must agree in number with the first. 

Examples: The father, as well as the sons, did his duty. 
Honesty, and labor also, will have its reward. 

6. When a pronoun represents a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of unity, the pronoun must be singular. 

Example: The society will hold its annual meeting 
tonight. 

7. When a pronoun represents a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must be plural. 

Example: The jury were divided in their opinions. 

8. When the antecedent is a noun of the singular num- 
ber, common gender, it is usually represented by a pro- 
noun of the singular number, masculine gender. 

Example : Every member must prepare his lesson at once. 

When, however, special accuracy of gender is desired, a pronoun 
of the masculine gender and one of the feminine may be used ; as, 
"Every member must prepare his or her own lesson." When the 
antecedent is known to be feminine, a pronoun of the feminine 
gender is required; as, "Every member of the class (composed of 
girls only) must prepare her lesson at once." 

9. When two or more singular antecedents are of differ- 
ent genders, each antecedent must be represented by a 
pronoun of its own gender. 

Example : No boy or girl should neglect his or her lessons. 

Repetitions of this kind can be avoided by using a noun of the 
common gender and employing a pronoun ot the masculine gender ; 
as, "No pupil should neglect his lessons." 



68 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

10. When singular pronouns of different persons are 
used together, courtesy requires that the pronoun of the 
second person be placed first; the pronoun of the third 
person, second; and the pronoun of the first person, last. 

Example : You and he may go. He and 7 will go. You, 
he, and I will go. 

ii. When plural pronouns of different persons are used 
together, courtesy requires that the pronoun of the first 
person be placed first; the pronoun of the second person, 
second; and the pronoun of the third person, last. 

Examples: We and they will go tomorrow. We, you, 
and they are responsible for these conditions. 

Cautions 

i. Anyone, anybody, each, everyone, everybody, either, 
neither, and somebody, etc., are singular, and hence, require 
pronouns in the singular number. 

Examples: Anybody in his (not their) senses would not 
have done that. Somebody has left his (not their) um- 
brella. 

2. Errors are frequently made by making the pronoun 
agree in person and number with some word near the 
antecedent instead of with the antecedent itself. 

Examples: Each of us should do his (not our) part. In 
this sentence, his is the correct pronoun, agreeing with 
each, not us. 

Exercise 30 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. The firm is nearly ready to move into its-their new building. 
2. Neither of them has paid their-his dues. 3. Every season has 
its-their peculiar power of striking the mind. 4. Neither the 
teacher nor the pupils felt that he-they had reason to regret his-their 
action. 5. Society is not always answerable for the conduct of 
their -its members. 6. Each pupil was asked to name their-his 



CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS 69 

favorite flower. 7. Each was the center of his-their own fair 
world. 8. If anybody calls, ask them-him to wait. 9. Every 
man is entitled to liberty of conscience and freedom of opinion if 
he does not pervert them -it to the injury of others. 10. Any 
person violating this rule does so at their-his own risk. 11. A 
civilized people has no right to violate their-its solemn obligations. 
12. Each gave what they-he could. 13. Everyone should be 
his-their own most severe critic. 14. Everyone must judge of 
his-their own feelings. 15. A person who is rude in his-their table 
manners will be disliked. 16. Every citizen and soldier must be 
ready to guard their-his country's honor. 17. The jury were 
divided in their-its opinion. 18. Either of the boys will lend you 
their-his knife. 19. Not one of them saw their-his mistake. 20. One 
or the other was wrong in his-their view of it. 21. Everyone 
should give their-his name every time he-they writes. 22. Anyone 
can do this if he-they tries. 23. Everyone was given their-his share. 
24. Let each take his-their turn. 25. Many a brave man met 
his-their death in the war. 26. He said that he or his brother 
would assist you to the best of his-their ability. 

Case Forms of Pronouns 



Nominative Forms 


Possessive Forms 


Objective Fc 


I 


my, mine 


me 


we 


our, ours 


us 


you 


your, yours 


you 


he 


his 


him 


she 


her, hers 


her 


it 


its 


it 


they 


their, theirs 


them 


who 


whose 


whom 



Caution in the Use of Case Forms 

Since pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative, 
the objective, and the possessive case, care must be exer- 
cised to use the correct form. 

i. Use the nominative form after copulative verbs. 

Examples: Itishe. It was /. It might have been they. 

In such constructions as "It seems to be he," "It was supposed 

to be they, ' seems to be and was supposed to be may be called copu- 



YO ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

lative verb phrases; and hence, require the nominative form after 
them. 

2. Use the objective form after an infinitive having a 
subject. 

Example: I knew it to be him. 

Since the same case is required after a copulative verb or an 
infinitive as before it, it follows that the pronoun after an infini- 
tive is in the objective case, for the reason that the subject of an 
infinitive is always in the objective case. 

3. Be careful to use the correct form of the pronoun 
when it is a member of a compound element. 

Examples: He saw John and me. (Not, John and /.) 
This is for Harry and her. (Not, Harry and she.) 

In such constructions, the correct form is at once seen when one 
member of the compound element is dropped. Thus, one might 
say, "He saw John and I," but no one would say, "He saw /." 

4. When a pronoun modifies a verbal noun, use the 
possessive form. 

Example: I did not think of his coming so soon. 

5. Do not use the apostrophe in forming the possessive 
case of pronouns. 

Examples: The bird hurt its wing. (Not, '//'sowing.) 
This book is theirs. (Not their 's.) 

6. Exercise care in the use of the interrogative pronouns. 
Example : Whom is that for ? 

In sentences of this kind, the construction of the interrogative 
pronoun is easily seen when the sentence is changed to the declar- 
ative form; as, "That is for whom?" 

7. Be careful to use the correct form of the relative 
pronoun who. 

Example: He is a man who, I believe, can be trusted. 

In this sentence, who is correct, because it is the subject of the 

verb phrase can be trusted. But in the sentence, "He is a man 

whom, I believe, we can trust," whom is correct,, because it is the 

object of the verb phrase can trust. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 11 

Composition 

Write four sentences exemplifying Caution 1. 
Write three sentences exemplifying Caution 2. 
Write four sentences exemplifying Caution 3. 
Write three sentences exemplifying Caution 4. 
Write four sentences exemplifying Caution 5. 
Write two sentences exemplifying Caution 6. 
Write two sentences exemplifying Caution 7. 

Compound Personal Pronouns 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, yourself, 
himself, herself, itself, and their plurals ourselves, yourselves, 
and themselves. 

Compound personal pronouns have two uses — 

i. Reflexive; as, "I hurt myself." 

The reflexive use of the pronoun represents the subject 
as acting upon itself. 

2. Emphatic; as, "I did it myself." 

Caution 

Do not use compound personal pronouns as subjects, 
attribute complement, or objects, except in an emphatic 
or a reflexive sense. 

Examples: Please accept this as a present from Mary 
and me. (Not Mary and myself.) It is for me. (Not 
myself.) 

Exercise 31 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. It is me-I, be not afraid. 2. Her brother is taller than she- 
her. 3. All of us-we girls had a good time. 4. He said that he 
would invite you and me-I. 5. They-them that honor me, I will 
honor. 6. I know him-he to be the man. 7. He said that he would 
invite you and me-I. 8. If I were she-her, I would not go. 9. I 
believe it to be she-her. 10. He said that he would invite her and 
me-I. 11. It was not them-they. 12. Who-whom did she ask 
for? 13. She said that she would write to you and me-I. 14. It 
was not me-I, it was either you or he-him. 15. It may have been 



72 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

us-we who-whom you saw. 16. Is this for James and me-I, or for 
Ellen and me-I? 17. Let James and I-me go too. 18. I was sur- 
prised at it-its being he-him. 19. Every one has gone to the lake 
but you and me-I. 20. If I were him-he, I should not do so. 
21. They said for you and/- me to come soon. 22. Boys like you and 
me-I are expected to do what is right without being told. 23. I 
gave the watch to the man who-whom I thought was the owner. 

24. I gave the watch to the man who-whom I took to be the owner. 

25. He left an invitation for Jack and I-me to visit him next 
Christmas. 26. It was she-her who told it, not me-I. 27. They 
lost no more than we-us. 28. Students like you and she-her ought 
to advance rapidly. 29. You know who-whom I thought it was. 
30. You know who-whom it was thought to be. 31. There are 
none of us left now but you and I-me. 32. I thought that her 
brother and she-her were going with us. 33. You may send who- 
ever-whomever you wish. 34. Everybody has gone except she-her 
and I-me. 35. They invited we-us boys to go with them. 36. I 
heard of him-his going away. 37. There is very little in common 
between us and they-them. 38. There was no one at home but 
mother and me-I. 39. John's parents oppose him-his quitting 
school. 40. I am sure these books were intended for you and 
I-me. 41. How can I tell who-whom to trust. 42. Between you 
and I-me, this is none of his business. 43. They invited Fanny 
and I-me to come to the wedding. 44. Who-whom do you think 
will be nominated? 45. Who-whom do you think they will elect? 
46. Will you permit us, Charlie and me-I, to go to the game tomor- 
row? 47. In fact, I know it to be he-him. 48. I know who-whom 
I serve. 49. Father left his money to Mary and I-me. 50. Who- 
whom did he refer to, he-him or I-me? 51. It was him-he whom- 
who I meant. 52. Do you believe it is they-them? 53. I thought 
it to be he-him, but I am not sure. 54. We were betrayed by 
those who-whom we thought we could trust implicitly. 55. It 
appears to be him-he. 56. Do you think the guilty person to be 
I-me? 57. I have information as to who-whom he is. 58. We 
recommend only those who-whom we think can pass the examina- 
tion, and who-whom we know will do their work in a satisfactory 
manner. 59. He is a man who-whom I know to be honest. 60. The 
evidence proved it to be they-them who were guilty. 61. Who- 
whom do men say that I am? 62. I did not know who-whom to 
trust. 63. How can we tell who-whom to trust? 64. Do you 
know who-whom you can get to do the work? 



MODE 73 

PROPERTIES OF THE VERB 

202. The properties of the verb are voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. 

203. Yoice is that form of a verb that shows whether 
the subject acts or is acted upon. 

204. There are two voices: the active and the passive. 

205. The active voice represents the subject as acting 
upon an object. 

Example: Columbus discovered America. 

206. The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon. 

Example: America was discovered by Columbus. 
Observe that the object of the verb in the active voice becomes 
the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice, and 
that the subject of the verb in the active voice becomes the object 
of a preposition when the verb is changed to the passive voice. 

MODE 

207. Mode is that form or use of a verb that indicates 
the manner in which the action or state is expressed. 

208. There are three modes: the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, and the imperative. 

209. The indicative mode is that form or use of a verb 
that asserts something as a fact. It is also used to express 
a condition or a supposition thought of as a fact, or to ask 
a question. 

Examples: Education expands and elevates the mind. 
Though she is young, she is well qualified. Are you going? 

210. The imperative mode is that form or use of a verb 
that expresses a command, a request, or an entreaty. 

Examples: Do it now. Kindly give me that book. 

211. The subjunctive mode is that form or use of a 
verb that expresses a doubt, a supposition contrary to 
fact, a future contingency, or a wish. 



74 ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Examples: If this be treason, make the most of it. If 
I were you, I would go. I wish I were a musician. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode is always found in a suboidinate 
clause, which is usually introduced by one of the conjunctions if, 
though, unless, except, or lest. 

While some writers do not make a careful distinction between 
the subjunctive and the indicative mode, the subjunctive mode 
should be used — 

1. To express a supposition contrary to conditions or facts 
Example: If I were you (but I am not), I should go. 

2. To express a wish. 

Example: I wish I were a musician. 

The subjunctive form of is, am, and are is be. The subjunctive 
form of any other verb is the same as the plural form; as, "If he 
be wrong, he will admit it." "If they be wrong, they will admit it.' 1 
"I wish he were willing to go." "I wish they were willing to go.' 

Composition 

Write five sentences each expressing a supposition contrary to 
conditions or facts. 

Write five sentences each expressing a wish. 

TENSE 

212. Tense is that form or use of a verb that denotes 
the time of an action or an event. 

213. There are three divisions of time: the present, the 
past, and the future. Each division has two tenses: a 
primary and a secondary. 

214. The primary tenses are the present, the past, 
and the future.- 

215. The secondary tenses are the present perfect, 
the past perfect, and the future perfect. 

216. The present tense denotes present time. 
Examples: I write. The boys are playing. 

217. The present tense is used — 

i. To express a general truth; as, "Perseverance conquers 
all things." 



TENSE 75 

2. To express what is habitual or customary; as, "The 
train arrives at 10 a. m." 

3. To express future time when the context shows that 
the future is referred to; as, "I leave tomorrow." 

4. To express past events to make the description more 
vivid; as, "Napoleon at once crosses the river, engages the 
enemy, and gains a complete victory." This is sometimes 
called the historical present. 

218. The past tense denotes past time. 

Examples: I saw him yesterday. I was working when 
you came. 

219. The future tense denotes what will take place in 
future time. 

Examples: I shall leave tonight. They will be going 
soon. 

Shall and will are the signs of the future tense. 

220. The present perfect tense denotes an action or 
an event as completed at the present time. 

Examples: I have finished my work. He has been 
studying. 

Have and has are the signs of the present perfect tense. 

221. The past perfect tense denotes an action or an 
event as completed before a stated past time. 

Example: I had written before I received the letter. 
Had is the sign of the past perfect tense. 

222. The future perfect tense denotes an action or 
an event as completed at or before a certain future time. 

Examples: I shall have finished my work before you 
receive this. He will have completed his course by that 
time. 

Shall have and will have are the signs of the future perfect tense 
in the indicative mode. 



76 



ESSENTIALS OP BUSINESS ENGLISH 



PERSON AND NUMBER 

223. The verb is said to agree with its subject in person 
and number; that is, it undergoes certain changes to con- 
form to the person and number of its subject. 

The verb be has the following person and number forms: 



PRESENT TENSE 



Singular 
I am 
You are 
He is 



Plural 
We are 
You are 
They are 



PAST TENSE 

I was We were 

You were You were 

He was They were 

224. With the exception of the verb be, the only in- 
flection for number and person in common use is in the 
third person, singular, present and present perfect tenses, 
which requires the verb or the auxiliary to end in s. 

Examples: The boy writes. The boy has written his 
letter. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 

225. According to form, verbs are divided into two 
classes: regular and irregular. 

226. A regular verb is one whose past tense and per- 
fect participle are formed by adding d or ed to the simple 
form of the verb; as, present, live; past, lived; perfect 
participle, lived. 

227. An irregular verb is one whose past tense and 
perfect participle do not end in d or ed; as, present, do; 
past, did; perfect participle, done. 

228. The principal parts of a verb are the present 
tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 



77 



Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs 

When a verb has two forms, the preferable form is given first. 

Verbs marked with the star (*) are those in which errors in 
the use of the past tense and perfect participle are most often made , 
and hence, they should be given special attention. 



Tense 


Past Tense 


Perfect Participle 


am 




was 


been 


arise 




arose 


arisen 


awake 




awoke, awaked awaked 


bear (to 


carry) 


bore, bare 


borne 


become 




became 


become 


begin* 




began 


begun 


bid (to command) 


bade 


bidden 


blow* 




blew 


blown 


break 




broke 


broken 


bring* 




brought 


brought 


burst 




burst 


burst 


choose 




chose 


chosen 


come* 




came 


come 


do* 




did 


done 


draw* 




drew 


drawn 


drink 




drank 


drunk, drank 


drive 




drove 


driven 


eat* 




ate 


eaten 


fall 




fell 


fallen 


fight 




fought 


fought 


flee 




fled 


fled 


fly 




flew 


flown 


forget 




forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


freeze* 




froze 


frozen 


get 




got 


• got, gotten 


give 




gave 


given 


go* 




went 


gone 


grow* 




grew 


grown 


hang *(1 


;o suspend) 


hung 


hung 


hang (to take life) 


hanged 


hanged 


know* 




knew 


known 


lay* (to place) 


laid 


laid 


lie* (to : 


recline) 


lay 


lain 


pay 




paid 


paid 



78 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



ride 




rode 




ridden 


ring 




rang, rung 


rung 


rise 




rose 




risen 


run* 




ran 




run 


see* 




saw 




seen 


set* (to 


place) 


set 




set 


shake 




shook 




shaken 


shrink 




shrank, 


, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


sing 




sang, sung 


sung 


sink 




sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit* (to be seated) 


sat 




sat 


slay 




slew 




slain 


speak* 




spoke, : 


spake 


spoken 


spring 




sprang, 


sprung 


sprung 


steal 




stole 




stolen 


strike 




struck 




struck, stricken 


swear 




swore 




sworn 


swell 




swelled 




swelled, swollen 


swim 




swam, 


swum 


swum 


take* 




took 




taken 


teach 




taught 




taught 


tear 




tore 




torn 


throw* 




threw 




thrown 


wake 




waked, 


woke 


waked , woke 


wear 




wore 




worn 


weave 




wove, weaved 


woven, weaved 


write 




wrote 




written 



Past Tense and Perfect Participle 

i. In forming the present perfect tense, the past perfect 
tense, and the future perfect tense, use the auxiliary 
have, has, had, shall have, or will have, etc., with the perfect 
participle of the verb. 

Examples: I have seen him. (Not, I seen him.) He 
has done the work. (Not, He done the work.) I had 
written the letter before you came. (Not, I written the 
letter before you came.) 

2. In forming the passive voice, prefix some form of 



EXERCISE 79 

the verb -be (am, is, are, was, were) to the perfect participle 
of a transitive verb. 

Example: The work was carefully done. 

Cautions 

i. In expressing past tense, use the past tense form of 
the verb without an auxiliary. 

Examples : I did it. We saw him. 

2. Use the perfect participle after an auxiliary verb. 

Example: He has gone home. (Not, He has went home.) 

Exercise 32 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. I began-begun my work before he came. 2. I had begun- 
began my work before he came. 3. I seen-saw you at the ball 
game yesterday afternoon. 4. The wind blowed-blew hard all 
day. 5. The wind has blowed-blown hard all day. 6. I wouldn't 
have went-gone if I'd knew-known it was so far away. 7. The 
window-pane was broken-broke by James. 8. John come-came 
home yesterday. 9. They all done-did exceptionally well at the 
closing exercises. 10. Has John come-came home yet? 11. I 
done-did it myself. 12. Have you wrote-written your exercises 
for tomorrow? 13. One can never tell whether he has chosen-chose 
rightly. 14. Have you eat-ate-eaten your dinner? 15. He looks 
as if he were almost froze-frozen. 16. The tree has fell-fallen across 
the road. 17. The water was froze-frozen. 18. There is a leaf 
lore-torn out of my book. 19. Have you gave-given your lesson 
proper attention? 20. Has he went-gone to town? 21. Have you 
ever rode-ridden a bicycle? 22. He run-ran a mile. 23. He has 
run-ran a mile. 24. Was such a sight ever saw-seen before? 25. I 
saw-seen it. 26. Has he ever spoke-spoken to you about the matter ? 
27. The money was stole-stolen. 28. Some one has took-taken 
my pencil. 29. Have you did-done it yet? 30. The bell rung- 
rang sometime ago. 31. How the boy has grawed-grown! 32. I 
seen-saw him do it. 33. He sprang-sprung at the man before we 
could reach him. 34. The bell was rang-rung at the usual time. 
35. The engineer blew-blowed the whistle. 36. Has the bell rang- 
rung yet? 



80 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Sit and Set 

Sit means to recline, and is an intransitive verb. 
Example: They are sitting on the porch. 
Set means to place, and is a transitive verb. 
Example: Set the lamp on the table. 

Lie and Lay 

Lie means to recline, and is an intransitive verb. 
Example: He lies there every day. 
Lay means to place, and is a transitive verb. 
Example: Please lay this book on the shelf. 

Observe that the verbs set and lay are transitive, and hence, 
always require objects; and that sit and lie are intransitive, and 
never take objects. In the passive voice always use the transitive 
verb, because only transitive verbs can become passive. 

Since set and lay mean to place, some form of these verbs should 
be used when a form of the verb place could be substituted; as, 
"He laid the book on the desk"="He placed the book on the 
desk." And since lie and sit mean to recline, some form of these 
verbs should be used when a form of the verb recline could be 
substituted; as, "The book is lying on the table" = "The book is 
reclining on the table." 

Exereise 33 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. He sat-set the pail on the bench. 2. I remember when the 
corner-stone was laid-lain. 3. I sat-set there last year. 4. Go 
and lay-lie down. 5. The coat sets-sits well. 6. When Romeo 
saw Juliet lying-laying in the casket, he lay-laid down by her 
side and drank the poison. 7. When Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo 
laying-lying beside her dead, she took a sword, which lay-laid near, 
and killed herself. 8. Please set-sit still while I am laying-lying 
en the couch. 9. May I set-sit here? 10. The books are laying- 
lying on the table. 11. I set-sat the basket near the tree. 12. It 
laid-lay where it fell. 13. Set-sit down a moment. 14. He has 
been setting-sitting there all afternoon. 15. The bird is setting- 
sitting on its eggs. 16. Let them lay-lie where they are. 17. He 



SHALL AND WILL 81 

laid-lay there for more than an hour. 18. I have Iain-laid it there 
many times. 19. She has been sitting-setting there for a long time. 
20. The book is lying-laying where I lay-laid it. 21. Have you 
laid-lain the book away ? 

Shall and Will 

The following rules govern the ordinary uses of these 
verbs : 

i. Shall is used with a subject in the first person to 
express what one intends to do in the future, or what will 
happen in the future. 

Examples: I shall go tomorrow. We shall hear from 
him within a few days. 

2. Shall is used with a subject in the second and the 
third person to express a promise, a command, or deter- 
mination on the part of the speaker. 

Examples: You shall hear from me soon. (Promise.) 
Thou shalt not steal. (Command.) He shall be punished. 
(Determination.) 

3. Will is used with a subject in the first person to 
express determination, or a promise. 

Examples: I will not permit it. (Determination.) I 
will write to you tomorrow. (Promise.) 

4. Will is used with a subject in the second and the 
third person to express what will happen in the future. 

Example: He will soon be here. 

5. Shall is used in questions with subjects in the first 
person. 

Example: Shall I see him for you? With other sub- 
jects, shall or will is used according as shall or will is ex- 
pected in the answer; as, ''Shall you go?" Answer, "I shall 
go." (Simple futurity.) 

"Will you go?" Answer, "I will." (Promise.) 
Should and Would— These words follow the same 
rules as shall and will. 



82 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Composition 

Write four sentences each containing shall used with a subject 
in the first person. 

Write four sentences each containing will used with a subject 
in the first person. 

Write four sentences each containing shall used with a subject 
in the second or the third person. 

Write four sentences each containing will used with a subject 
in the second or the third person. 

Write four sentences exemplifying the correct use of should. 

Write four sentences exemplifying the correct use of would. 

Exercise 34 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
In the sentences in which either shall or will may be used, 
explain* the meaning of each. 

1. We will-shall endeavor to comply with your requests. 

2. You would-should enjoy it if you understood it thoroughly. 

3. He thinks she will-shall be elected. 4. I think he will-shall 
be elected. 5. We will-shall all be greatly benefited by the new 
arrangements. 6. We would-should like to grant your request, 
but we are not in a position to do so. 7. They will-shall 
not elect their candidate if we can prevent it. 8. I think 
you will-shall enjoy reading the book. 9. I shall-will never 
consent to his going so far away. 10. I am determined that you 
will-shall obey me. 11. He would-should study more diligently 
if he expects to succeed. 12. When will-shall it please you to 
look at my new book? 13. Shall-will we go tomorrow? 14. We 
would-should be glad to hear from you. 15. Shall-will we go to 
the lecture this evening? 16. You shall-will know my answer 
tomorrow. 17. Shall-will you go to the lecture this evening? 
18. I shall-will go abroad in the spring. 19. He will-shall be 
rewarded for his honesty. 20. I will-shall be disappointed if he 
does not come. 21. I shall-will be greatly obliged to you if you 
will do it for me. 22. I will-shall drown and nobody ivill-shall 
help me. 23. The children shall-will have a holiday. 24. I 
should-would not be surprised if he would-should go too. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB 83 

SYNTAX OF THE VERB 

229. The verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

Special Rules 

i. A compound subject whose parts are connected by 
and requires a verb in the plural number. 

Examples: Time and tide wait for no man. Industry, 
energy, and honesty are essential to success. 

Exceptions 

a. When the connected subjects are but different names of 
the same person or thing, or when the subjects name several things 
taken as one whole, the verb must be singular; as "My old friend 
and schoolmate (one person) is in the city." "Bread and milk 
(meaning one kind of food) is good for children." "To rise and 
retire early (meaning the habit) is good for one's health." 

b. When two or moije singular subjects are preceded by each, 
every, or no, they are taken separately and require a singular verb; 
as, "Every man, woman, and child was pleased with the lecture." 
"Each book and paper was found in its place." 

c. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other nega- 
tive, the verb agrees with the affirmative and is understood with 
the other; as, "Our own heart, and not other mm's opinions, forms 
our true honor." 

In constructions of this kind two propositions are implied; 
that is, "Our own heart forms our true honor," and "Other men's 
opinions do not form our true honor." The verb agrees with the 
affirmative proposition and is understood with the negative. 

d. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb 
agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, "Time, 
and patience also, is needed." 

2 . A collective noun takes a verb in the singular number 
when the collection is thought of as one whole; but when 
the individuals in the collection are thought of, it takes 
a verb in the plural number. 

Examples: The crowd was composed of men of every 
class. The public are often deceived by false appearances. 



84 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

3. When a noun in the plural is used to denote a whole, 
a unit of some sort, as the title of a book, a sum of money, 
etc., a verb in the singular number is requited. 

Examples: Plutarch's Lives is a good book. Five 
hundred dollars was spent. 

4. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives 
so as to mean two distinct things, a verb in the plural 
number is required. 

Example : Moral and physical education are both neces- 
sary. Here education must be regarded as understood 
after moral. 

5. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor require a verb in the singular number. 

Examples: Either James or Henry is going. Neither 
James nor John is qualified to fill the position. 

The reason for this rule is that with or the assertion is made 
of only one of the subjects, while with nor the assertion is denied 
of each of the subjects separately. 

6. When one of the subjects connected by or or nor 
is plural, it is placed nearest the verb and the verb agrees 
with it in the plural. 

Examples: Neither the emperor nor the generals were 
convinced. Neither the boy nor his sisters are to blame. 

7. When two or more subjects of different persons are 
connected by or or nor, the verb should be expressed with 
each subject. 

Examples: Either he is wrong, or I am. You are 
mistaken, or he is. 

8. When two subjects are connected by the conjunction 
as well as, the verb agrees with the first. 

Examples: Money, as well as men, was needed. The 
girls, as well as their brother, deserve commendation. 

In constructions of this kind, the noun following as well as is 
the subject of a sentence, the verb of which is implied; as, "The 
teacher, as well a* the pupils, was pleased with the address," meaning 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB 85 

"The teacher was pleased with the address, as well as the pupils 
were pleased with the address." 

Cautions 

i. Do not use a plural verb with a singular subject 
modified by an adjective phrase introduced by of, with, 
together with, in addition to, etc. 

Examples: The richness of her arms and apparel was 
(not were) conspicuous in the foremost ranks. The cap- 
tain, with all the crew, was lost. The father, together 
with his two sons, was among the first to enlist. This 
amount, in addition to what I already have, is sufficient. 

2 . The pronoun you takes a verb in the plural even when 
it represents only one person. 

Examples: I heard that you were coming. (Not was.) 
This caution is often violated in interrogative sentences; 
as, "Was you there?" instead of the correct form, "Were 
you there?" 

3 . When a sentence is introduced by there, the verb must 
agree with the subject, which follows the verb. 

Example: There were great claps of thunder. 

4. Do not use don't with a singular subject in the third 
person. Say "He doesn't," "She doesn't," "It doesn't;*' 
not "He don't," "She don't," "It don't" 

5. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb 
agrees with the antecedent in person and number. 

Example: The new library is one of the finest buildings 
that have ever been erected in this city. The antecedent 
of that is buildings, not one. 

In the sentence, "This is the only one of the books that is 
worth reading," the antecedent of that is one, not books. 

Exercise 35 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. Was-were you at home yesterday? 2. Which of these two 



86 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

books is-are yours? 3. Either of them is-are suitable. 4. The 
committee was-were unable to agree. 5. The wife and mother 
kneel-kneels in prayer. 6. Diligent industry, and not mean saving, 
produce- produces honorable competence. 7. Not a lcud voice, but 
strong proofs, bring-brings conviction. 8. Neither wealth nor 
wisdom is-are the chief thing in this life. 9. Every man, woman, 
and child was-were alarmed. 10. The greater part of the audience 
was-were pleased with the lecture. 11. A committee was-were 
appointed to inquire into the matter. 12. Neither his vote, his 
influence, nor his purse was-were ever withheld from the cause in 
which he was engaged. 13. A variety of pleasing objects charm- 
charms the eye. 14. General Custer, with all his men, was-were 
killed by the Indians. 15. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits 
delight-delights some persons. 16. This book, as well as that, 
was-were written long ago. 17. Two thousand dollars is-are too 
much for that property. 18. Both physical and manual training 
are-is necessary. 19. Ten years has-have passed since I saw him 
last. 20. The public is-are cordially invited. 21. Mr. Brown, 
with his three sons, have-has been here for more than a month. 
22. Either the man or his son is-are willing to assist you. 23. Either 
the man or his sons is-are willing to assist you. 24. My friend 
and schoolmate is-are in the city. 25. Every book and paper 
was-were found in its place. 26. The lowest mechanic, as well as 
the richest citizen, is-are protected in his rights. 27. Where 
was-were you? 28. He don't-doesn't like it. 29. Every house 
and store was-were burned. 30. A boat or two has-have already 
passed. 31. Abnormal is one of those words which has-have come 
in to supply a want in the precise statement of science. 32. Noth- 
ing but expense and trouble has-have grown out of the business. 
33. Neither beauty, wealth, nor talents was-were injurious to her 
modesty. 34. He is one of those persons who has-have rare execu- 
tive ability. 



PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE 

230. Adjectives have but one property; namely, com- 
parison. 

231. Comparison is a variation in the form of the adjec- 
tive to express different degrees of quality. 



PROPERTIES OP THE ADJECTIVE 87 

232. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

233. The positive degree expresses a quality without a 
comparison. 

Examples: The man is tall. We climbed a high hill. 

234. The comparative degree expresses a higher or 
lower degree of quality than is expressed by the positive 
degree. 

Examples : He is the taller of the two men. He is older 
than I. 

235. The superlative degree expresses the highest 
or lowest degree of quality. 

Examples: He is the youngest boy in the class. She 
is the tallest of the three girls. 

236. Adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of 
two syllables usually form the comparative by adding er, 
and the superlative by adding est; as, tall, taller, tallest; 
able, abler, ablest. 

237. Some adjectives of two syllables and all adjectives 
of more than two syllables form the comparative by pre- 
fixing more or less to the positive degree; and the superla- 
tive by prefixing most or least to the positive degree; as, 
fragrant, more fragrant, most fragrant; beautiful, more 
beautiful, most beautiful. 

In forming the comparison of regular adjectives of two 
syllables, affix er and est, or prefix more and most according 
to which sounds the better. 

Irregular Comparisons 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly. 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

good better best 

bad, ill, evil worse worst 

little less least 



88 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



much 


more 


most 


many- 


more 


most 


late 


later, latter 


latest, last 


far 


farther 


farthest 


old 


older, elder 


oldest, eldest 


forth 


further 


furthest 


fore 


former 


foremost, first 


in, adv. 


inner 


inmost or innermost 


out, adv. 


outer 


outmost , outermost 


up 


upper 


upmost, uppermost 


nigh 


mgher 


nighest, next 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE 

238. The comparative degree of the adjective is used 
when comparing two objects. 

Example: He is the taller of the two boys. 

239. The superlative degree of the adjective is used 
when comparing three or more objects. 

Example: He is the tallest of the five brothers. 

240. When the comparative degree of an adjective is 
used with than, the thing compared must always be ex- 
cluded from the class of things with which it is compared. 

Example: Texas is larger than any other state in the 
Union. 

The sentence, "Texas is larger than any state in the Union," 
would mean that Texas is not a state in the Union, or that Texas 
is larger than itself. 

241. When the superlative degree of an adjective is 
used the latter term of comparison should not exclude 
the former if the objects compared belong to the same class. 

Example: Texas is the largest state in the Union. 

242. When an adjective is united with a noun to form 
a compound adjective, the singular form of the noun is 
used. 

Example: A three-foot measure; a forty-foot lot; a 30-day 
note. 



SYNTAX OP THE ADJECTIVE 89 

243. When a plural adjective modifies a noun, the noun 
must also be plural. 

Example: We walked three miles. (Not, three mile.) 

244. When preceded by an adjective expressing number, 
pair, dozen, head, score, hundred, etc., retain the singular 
form. 

Examples : Two dozen of eggs ; jour pair of shoes ; twenty 
head of cattle. 

245. This and that are the only adjectives that are in- 
flected for number. Use this and that with singular nouns, 
and their plurals these and those with plural nouns. 

Examples: This sort, these sorts; that kind, those kinds. 

246. The words first and last when used with adjectives 
that express number are placed before the adjective. 

Examples: The first ten pages; the last three lessons. 

247- Place adjectives where there can be no doubt as to 
what they are intended to modify. 

Examples: A pair of new shoes. (Not, a new pair of 
shoes) ; a bouquet of fresh flowers. (Not, a fresh bouquet of 
flowers.) 

248. Adjectives denoting qualities that cannot exist in 
varying degrees, such as round, square, perfect, perpendic- 
ular, etc., are not usually compared. 

Some of the best writers of English, however, compare these 
adjectives on the theory that they are not used in their strict sense. 

249. A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound. 

Examples: A boy; a man; a horse. 

250. An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound. 

. Examples: An orange; an hour. 

251. An is used before words beginning with h when the 
accent is on the second syllable. 

Example: An historian. 



90 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

252. When two or more adjectives modify the same 
noun, the article is used before the first adjective only. 

Example: A red, white, and blue flag. (One flag.) 

253. When two or more adjectives modify different 
nouns, one of which is expressed and the rest understood, 
the article is used. before each adjective. 

Example: The red and the white cottage are mine. 
Here cottage is understood after red. 

254. The article the should be used before a noun denot- 
ing a class rather than an individual of a class. 

Example: The lion is the king of beasts. 

255. The article should be omitted before a noun used 
as a mere title. 

Example : The ruler of a city is called mayor. (Not, a 
mayor.) 

256. When two or more nouns denoting the same person 
or thing are compared, the article should be used before 
the first noun only. 

Example : He is a better writer than speaker. 

257. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote the same person or thing, the article should be used 
before the first only. 

Example: The editor and publisher (one person) of the 
magazine was at the convention. 

258. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote different persons or things, the article should be 
used before each noun. 

Example. The editor and the publisher (two persons) 
are at the convention. 

259. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote different things so closely associated in thought that 
they may be considered as forming a whole, the article 
should be used before the first noun only. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 91 

Examples: The wheel and axle is broken. The pen and 
ink is here. 

Exercise 36 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. Of two evils choose the least-lesser. 2. He measured the 
lot with a three-feet-three- foot stick. .3. Which is the older-oldest, 
James or Henry? 4. The farmer exchanged two barrels-barrel of 
potatoes for fifty pound-pounds of sugar. 5. He is the smaller- 
smallest of the two. 6. The room is twenty foot-feet square. 7. We 
have just returned from a five-mile-five-miles drive. 8. We saw a 
herd of ninety head-heads of cattle. 9. I do not know which of 
the two books I like the best-better. 10. This-these kind is more 
expensive. 11. Which is the best-better of the two? 12. This- 
these kind of apples is better than those. 13. He is the elder-eldest 
of the boys. 14. This-these sort of expressions should be avoided. 
15. Which is the larger -largest, London or Paris? 16. We were 
going at the rate of forty mile-miles an hour. 17. A -the lion shall 
eat straw like the-an ox. 18. A-the dog is a faithful companion. 

Correct the following sentences: (Some are correct.) 
1. Goldsmith, the poet and the novelist, died in 1774. 2. A horse 
is a noble animal. 3. There is no metal so useful as iron. 4. He 
is the most active of all his companions. 5. Do you know what 
kind of an apple this is ? 6. He is better known than any 
other man in his city. 7. She has an active and an energetic mind. 
8. This expression is more preferable than that. 9. A large and 
a small house occupied the lot. 10. The secretary and treasurer 
do not approve of the action. 11. China has a greater population 
than any nation on the globe. 12. Solomon was a wise and good king. 
13. What manner of a man is he? 14. James is taller than any 
member of his class. 15. Washington, the statesman and the 
soldier, died at Mount Vernon. 16. New York is larger than any 
city in the United States. 17. He was a great and a good man. 
18. What kind of a typewriter have you? 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

260. Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison, 
i . Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est; as, 
fast, faster, fastest; late, later, latest. 



92 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

2. Many adverbs are compared by prefixing more and 
most; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; eagerly, more 
eagerly, most eagerly. 

3. Some adverbs are compared irregularly. 



Positi ve 


Comparative 


Superlative 


well 


• better 


best 


ill, badly 


worse 


worst 


much 


more 


most 


forth 


further 


furthest 


little 


less 


least 



Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ly; as, 
dow, slowly; probable, probably. 

Cautions 

261. Do not use two negatives to express negation. 
Example: I don't want anything. (Not, "I don't want 

nothing.") 

262. Do not use from before whence, thence, hence, as it 
is implied in these words. 

Example: Whence came he. (Not, "From whence came 
he.") 

263. Good is an adjective and should not be used as an 
adverb. 

Example: He did the work well. (Not, "He did the 
work good.") 

264. Position of the Adverb. Adverbs should be 
so placed that they will clearly express the meaning in- 
tended. Never put between a word and its modifiers 
anything that can steal the modification. Thus, in the 
sentence, "I should like to see you very much," very much 
is so placed that it modifies to see, whereas it should be 
so placed as to modify should like. Thus, "I should like 
very much to see him." 

1 . When an adverb modifies the meaning of an intransi- 
tive verb, it should generally follow the verb. 



POSITION OF THE ADVERB 93 

Examples : We walked rapidly. He speaks distinctly. 
A few adverbs, however, such as ever, never, seldom, often, 
etc., generally precede it; as, "We often go to the city." 
"We seldom go to the country." 

2. When an adverb modifies the meaning of a transitive 
verb, it generally precedes the verb on account of the 
fact that the object follows it, although in short sentences, 
the adverb may follow the verb. 

Examples: He gladly accompanied me to the theater. 
He wrote the letter carefully. He uttered the words 
slowly and distinctly. He willingly gave her all the money 
that she asked for. 

3. When an adverb modifies the meaning of a verb 
phrase in the active voice, it follows the first auxiliary; 
but when it modifies the meaning of a verb phrase in the 
passive voice-, it immediately precedes the principal verb. 

Examples: He will undoubtedly have finished before you 
arrive. He will surely have forgotten it by that time. 
Tt can be readily proved. The matter can be easily adjusted. 

Exercise 37 

Correct the following sentences. 

1. I only saw your brother for a moment. 2. I wish only to 
order fifty copies at this time. 3. I am prepared to tell him what 
I think of him publicly. 4. I am pleased to see you always. 
5. "The Spirit of Laws" was only completed when the author 
was sixty years of age. 6. He never will know the truth in the 
matter. 7. I am ready to avow often that I never shall undertake 
such a task again. 8. Do you take the medicine the doctor gave 
you regularly? 9. I scarcely ever remember to have had a rougher 
ride. 10. I don't want nothing. 11. From whence came he? 
12. She never goes nowhere. 13. His last trip was to Mexico from 
whence he was never destined to return. 14. The bill was only 
confirmed by a majority of one. 



94 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB 

265. When a word relates to the predicate by denoting 
the manner of action, it should be an adverb; but when 
it expresses some quality or condition of the subject, it 
should be an adjective. Nearly all verbs express action 
of some kind and are, therefore, followed by adverbs to 
show the manner of the action; as, "The physician felt the 
patient's pulse carefully; i. e., with care or in a careful man- 
ner" A few verbs, however, such as seem, smell, taste, feel, 
appear, look, sound, become, do not express action, and 
these are followed by adjectives expressing a condition of 
the subject; as, "The milk tastes sour." "I feel bad" 
"We arrived safe; i. e., we arrived in good condition" 

Verbs that express action may, when the sense requires 
it, be followed by an adjective expressing a state or con- 
dition of the subject; as, "He stood firm" "The child 
sat still" "The moon rose bright." 



Exercise 38 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. These flowers smell sweetly- sweet. 2. Doesn't she look 
beautiful-beautifully in her new dress? 3. You do not write plain- 
plainly enough. 4. I can do it easier-more easily this way than I 
can your way. 5. How strange -strangely it seems here now. 
6. This pen does not write good-well. 7. Walk as quiet-quietly 
as poosible. 8. That is easier-more easily said than done. 9. I al- 
ways feel awkward-awkward ly in the presence of company. 10. I 
feel good-well this morning. 11. You must speak more distinctly- 
distinct. 12. How do you feel this morning? Very well-good, 
thank you. 13. My head feels bad-badly today. 14. The goods 
arrived safe-safely and sound-soundly. 15. After many delays 
and misfortunes, we arrived at home safe-safely. 16. She looked 
cold-coldly on his offer of marriage. 17. How bright-brightly the 
stars shine tonight. 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS 95 

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS 

266. Care should be exercised to use appropriate prep- 
ositions. 

Following are some of the most important combinations: 

Accompanied by persons or lower animals, with inanimate 
objects. 

Accordance with. (Not to.) 

Adapted to a thing, for a purpose, adapted from a pro- 
duction. 

Agree to a thing proposed, with a person, on or upon 
something determined. 

Arrive in a large city, or in a country, at a small place. 

Beside means by the side of; besides means in addition to. 

Between refers to two things or groups of things ; among to 
more than two. 

By usually denotes the agent; with, the instrument. 

Compare with in quality, to for illustration. 

Conform to; in conformity with. 

Correspond with (by letter), to similars. 

Die of disease. 

Differ with in opinion, from in quality or appearance. 

Differ from. (Not to or than.) 

In denotes position within; into denotes entrance. 

Suitable to one's station, for a purpose. 

Exercise 39 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
1. The jury disagreed between-among themselves. 2. Come 
in-into the room and sit down. 3. I was at-in New York when 
it happened. 4. He died with-of fever. 5. The children divided 
the apples between-among themselves. 6. Put it in-into the desk. 
7. The property was divided among-between the two boys. 8. He 
was accompanied by-with his staff. 9. In accordance to-with your 
order, we sent your books today. 10. He is especially adapted 
to-for this work. 11. He adapted himself to-for the circumstances. 






96 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

12. Do not compare me with-to him. 13. I differ from-wiih you 
in regard to this matter. 14. You differ with-from him in appear- 
ance. 15. He was killed by-with lightning. 16. He went in-into 
the house. 17. Who be sides-be side you was there ? 18. We could 
not agree about-on the matter. 19. I agree with-to the proposition. 
20. We shall arrive in-at New York at three o'clock. 21. He 
arrived in-at America on the first day of May. 22. Life in the 
country is different than-from-to what it is in the city. 23. Put 
some coal in-into the scuttle, and take it in-into the house. 

Test Questions 

1. Give the plural of the following nouns: chair, cherry, knife, 
latch, mercy, ox, chimney, folio, cargo, piano, calico, tooth, child, 
crisis. 2. Give the singular and the plural possessive of the following 
nouns: girl, boy, woman, man, day, month, week. 3. Give the pos- 
sessive of the following: two months interest, a days journey, Mason 
and Dixons line, 30 days trial, 90 days time, teachers convention, 
Farmers Hotel, two weeks examination, Burns poems, Jones store- 
4. When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by 
each, every , or no, what number of the pronoun is required ? 5. Give 
an example. 6. When two or more singular antecedents are con- 
nected by or or nor , what number of the pronoun is required? Give an 
example. 7. When the antecedent is a noun of the singular number, 
common gender, what number and gender of the pronoun is requiied? 
Give an example. 8. What number and gender of the pronoun is re- 
quired when the antecedent is each, either, anybody, somebodv, 
everyone, everyboay, etc.? Give an example of each. 9. Give the 
forms of the verb be. 10. What case form of the pronoun is required 
after a copulative verb? Give three examples. 11. What case form 
of the pronoun is required when it is used (a) as the subject of an in- 
finitive? (b) as the predicate complement of an infinitive having a 
subject ? Give an example of each. 12. What case form of the noun 
or pronoun is required when it modifies a verbal noun? Give three 
examples. 13. Explain the use of the compound personal pronoun. 
Give an example. 14. Give the principal parts of the following verbs, 
and use the past tense and perfect participle in sentences: blow, do, 
eat, go, grow, lay, lie, run, see, sit, throw. 15. What does shall ex- 
press with a subject of the first person? Give an example. 16. What 
does will express with a subject of the first person ? Give an example. 
17. What number of the verb is required with two or more singular 
subjects modified by each, every, or no? Give an example. 



PART IV 

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 

267. Clearness treats of the proper use and arrange- 
ment of words, phrases, and clauses. It is the first requisite 
of every sentence. A sentence may be grammatically cor- 
rect, yet its elements may be so placed that the meaning 
cannot be definitely determined, or the meaning conveyed 
may be entirely different from that intended. For example, 
the sentence, "I met your brother going to town yesterday," 
leaves one in doubt as to who was going to town. But 
when written, "On my way to town yesterday, I met your 
brother," or "I met your brother on his way to town," 
the meaning is perfectly clear. 

GENERAL RULE 

Words, phrases, and clauses should be placed as near as 
possible to the words they limit. 

Special Rules 

i. Place adverbs and adjectives where they will modify 

the word intended. 

Original. — I should like to see you very much. 

Improved. — I should like very much to see you. 

Original. — We have a fine line of elegant children's suits at low 
prices. 

Improved. — We have a fine line of children's elegant suits at 
low prices. 

Position of Only. — This word requires special care, for 
the reason that no other word in the English language is 
so often misplaced. As a general rule only should be placed 
immediately before the word, phrase, or clause that it 
modifies. 



98 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Thus, in the sentence, "I only saw your brother for a moment," 
only modifies saw, and conveys the idea that I saw him, but did 
not speak to him, while evidently the meaning intended is that I 
saw your brother only for a moment, no longer. 

When ho ambiguity would arise (as at the end of sentences), 
only may be placed after the word it modifies; as, "He spoke to 
me only." 

2. Phrases and clauses, like words, should be so placed 
that they will convey the meaning intended. 

Original. — He said that he visited one creamery that was 
manufacturing a great deal of ice cream, in order to learn some- 
thing about the business. 

Improved. — He said that in order to learn something about 
the business, he visited one creamery that was manufacturing a 
great deal of ice cream. 

3. Place the relative pronoun as near as possible to its 
antecedent. 

Original. — The fruit came in a small wooden box, which we ate. 

Improved. — The fruit, which we ate , came in a small wooden 
box. 

When the meaning would not be obscure, the relative clause 
may, for smoothness, be placed at some distance from its antece- 
dent; as, "He jests at scars, who never felt a wound." 

4. Place the participle as near as possible to the word it 

modifies. 

Original. — I looked through a window, and saw a man, on my 
way home, reading a book. 

Improved. — On my way home, I looked through a window 
and saw a man reading a book. 

5. Express clearly the subject of a participle. 
Original. — Standing on the seashore, two vessels are seen 

moving in opposite directions. 

Improved. — Standing on the seashore, / saw two vessels 
moving in opposite directions. 

6. Make the antecedent of personal pronouns clear. 
Original. — The boy assured his father that he was right. 
Improved. — The boy said to his father, "You are right." 
Or, The boy said to his father, "I am right." 

In sentences of this kind, when the antecedent cannot be re- 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 99 

peated, report the conversation in the form of a direct quotation. 

7. Place correlatives before the same parts of speech. 
Original. — He not only gave me good advice, but he helped me 

financially. 

Improved. — He not only gave me good advice, but helped me 
financially. 

8. The preposition should be repeated when its objects 
are separated by an intervening phrase, or by a verb and 

its object. 

Original. — He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that 
helped him when he was poor and uninfluential, and John Smith 
in particular. 

Improved. — He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those 
that helped him when he was poor and uninfluential, and to John 
Smith in particular. 

The first sentence might be construed to mean that he forgets 
the gratitude that he owes to those that helped him and helped 
John Smith. The second sentence means that he forgets the 
gratitude he owes to those that helped him and the gratitude he 
owes to John Smith in particular. 

9. When two or more infinitives are used in the same 
construction, the sign to should be repeated when they 

are separated by a number of intervening words. 

Original. — It would have been no surprise to hear the bark of 
a raccoon, or see the eyes of a wildcat gleaming through the leaves. 

Improved. — It would have been no surprise to hear the bark 
of a raccoon, or to see the eyes of a wildcat gleaming through the 
leaves. 

10. Repeat the article when the reference is to more 
than one person or thing, if the meaning would not otherwise 

be clear. 

Original. — The secretary and treasurer shall be elected for a 
period of three years. 

Improved. — The secretary and the treasurer shall be elected 
for a period of three years. 

The first sentence implies that one person shall be both secretary 
and treasurer, while the second sentence implies that there are two 
persons, one secretary and the other treasurer. 



100 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

ii. When that introduces the first of a series of noun 
clauses, it should be repeated before each member of the 
series. 

Original. — He said that he would be here soon, and he would 
then take the matter up with us more in detail. 

Improved. — He said that he would be here soon, and that he 
would then take the matter up with us more in detail. 

12. When a subordinate clause is introduced by if, 
when, as, while, though, although, etc., force is often gained 
by placing it before the principal clause. This is especially 
true in long sentences. 

Original.- =-1 should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, 
and to show you the objects of interest in our city and the beautiful 
scenery in the neighborhood, if you were here. 

Improved. — // you were here, I should be delighted to introduce 
you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our 
city and the beautiful scenery in the neighborhood. 

13. In conditional sentences, the subordinate clauses 
should be kept distinct from the principal clauses. 

Original. — The expectations of the parents are disappointed 
if the children do not work hard, and money is wasted. 

Improved. — If the children do not work hard, the expectations 
of the parents are disappointed, and money is wasted. 

14. When the subject consists of a series of words, 
phrases, or clauses, force is gained by using some summar- 
izing word, such as these, all, etc. 

Original. — Cotton and gold, banks and railways, crowded ports 
and populous cities are not the elements that constitute a great 
nation. 

Improved. — Cotton and gold, banks and railways, crowded 
ports and populous cities, — these are not the elements that consti- 
tute a great nation. 

15. Repeat the common subject of several verbs when 

any word comes between that is capable of being a subject. 

Original. — I shall be disappointed if he does not fulfill his en- 
gagements with me, and will endeavor to make other arrangements 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 101 

Improved. — I shall be disappointed if he does not fulfill his 
engagements with me, and / shall endeavor to make other arrange- 
ments. 

1 6. Do not omit a principal or an auxiliary verb in one 
clause unless the form understood is the same as the form 
expressed in the other. 

Original. — I shall feel, as I always have, that he is in the wrong. 
Improved. — I shall always feel, as I have always felt, that he is 
in the wrong. 

Original. — The flowers were in bloom, and the grass green. 
Improved. — The flowers were in bloom, and the grass was green. 

17. Repeat any for mof the verb to be when it is used 
as a principal verb in one clause and as an auxiliary in 
another. 

Original. — She was the synosure of all eyes, and admired by 
everyone present. 

Improved. — She was the synosure of all eyes, and was admired 
by everyone present. 

18. In making a comparison in the comparative degree, 
the person or thing compared should always be excluded 
from the class to which it belongs, by the use of other or 
some similar expression. 

Original. — He is taller than any member of his class. 
Improved. — He is taller than any other member of his class. 

19. In making comparisons in the superlative degree, 
the word other should not be used, because it would ex- 
clude the person or thing compared. 

Original. — This paper has the largest circulation of all the 
other papers in the city. 

Improved. — This paper has the largest circulation of all the 
papers in the city. 

20. Avoid the use of superfluous words. 

Original. — I do not like it, but I know of no other alternative. 
Improved. — I do not like it, but I know of no alternative. 

21. Avoid the use of inappropriate words. 
Original. — We had an a v 'fully nice time. 
Improved. — We had a very nice time. 



102 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Exercises 

Correct the errors in the following sentences according 
to the rules referred to by the figures in parenthesis. 

Position of Adverbs and Adjectives 

(1) 

1. I only saw him once after that. 

2. I never expect to see him again. 

3. He is an unquestioned man of genius. 

4. He only offered me fifty dollars for it. 

5. His store is only open in the forenoon. 

6. The French nearly lost five-thousand men. 

7. We only distribute them among our friends. 

8. I scarcely ever remember seeing one that I like better. 

9. The crown of England can only be worn by a Protestant. 

10. The Indians chiefly subsist by hunting and fishing. 

11. We scarcely have enough to supply our own immediate needs. 

12. He had almost gotten to the top when the rope broke. 

13. He stopped asking questions abruptly and left the room. 

14. He answered all the questions that were put to him quite 
readily. 

15. You can depend on his doing whatever he undertakes to do 
well. 

16. It is a prevalent notion that a man's character mainly is 
determined by his environment. It would be nearer true to 
directly turn this statement around. 

17. The manufacture of sugar is only profitable when conducted 
on a large scale. 

18. He adds the amounts of all checks received during the day 
on an adding machine. 

Position of Phrases and Clauses 

(2) 

1. The earth looks as if it were flat on the map. 

2. He might be taken by any one who met him as a robber. 

3. He went to town driving a flock of sheep, on horseback. 

4. The Britons at least fought as bravely as the Romans. 

5. The meaning is unmistakable of his presence here. 

6. Wanted — Twenty boys to weed onions, from ten to fifteen 
years old. 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 103 

7. He received a reward and the praise of all for his bravery. 

8. He bought the house in which he lives, for his own residence. 

9. He could see the ship gliding under full sail through a spy- 
glass. 

10. Wanted — A stenographer by a legal firm, who can also 
do collecting. 

11. Nature tells me I am the image of God, as well as th: 
Scriptures. 

12. Teachers should try to repress the practice of throwing 
stones as far as possible. 

13. Please tell my father, if he is at home, I shall not hurry 
back. 

14. Everybody thought that this was destined to be a great 
city twenty years ago. 

15. She went on the stage, for which she had a strong inclina- 
tion, to gain a living. 

16. When the cat came into the room, feeling tired, I laid 
aside my work and began to talk to her. 

17. You can tell what will be the level, whether higher or 
lower, of his future course, by the direction in which he is headed. 

Position of Relative Clauses 

(3) 

1. Did you take the book to the library, that I lent you ? 

2. I called at the man's home who visited us sometime ago. 

3. He is like a beast of prey, who is devoid of compassion. 

4. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see; nor boots, that 
cannot walk. 

5.' Life with him has ended in a sad mistake, which began with 
such bright prospects. 

6. This way will take you to a gentleman's house that hath 
skill to take off these burdens. 

Antecedent of the Personal Pronoun 

(6) 

1. The boy promised his father that he would pay his debts. 

2. If fresh milk does not agree with the child, boil it. 

3. The farmer told his neighbor that his cattle were in bis corn. 

4. The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should, he would 
die. 



104 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

5. He at last found the key, locked the door, and went away, 
putting it in his pocket. 

6. He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an 
hour, he would return. 

Position of Correlatives 

(7) 

1. I will neither give you money nor favors. 

2. We must not only think of ourselves, but also of others. 

3. I am neither acquainted with the writer nor his works. 

4. She not only speaks English, but also French and German. 

5. You can neither hope for success in this course nor in the 
other. 

6. California not only produces gold in abundance, but quick- 
silver also. 

7. It will not merely interest children, but grown-up people 
too. 

8. This is not merely intended to interest people, but to in- 
struct them. 

9. The good man not only deserves the respect, but also the 
love of his fellow-beings. 

10. They not only drew from their experience of actual govern- 
ment, but from their wealth of knowledge of past history. 

Omission of Important Elements 

1. He tried the old and new method. 

2. I never have, nor- never will agree to such a proposal. 

3. He may be successful in politics, as he has in business. 

4. We have a large and small dictionary for the use oi students. 

5. He never has, and probably never will forgive me for de- 
ceiving him. 

6. Our editorial page will — as -it always has — support any 
worthy cause. 

7. The council has not now, nor never had the power to make 
such a law. 

8. The question has not, and probably never will be satisfac- 
torily settled. 

9. He belongs to one caste, and the hewers of wood and drawers 
of water to another. 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 105 

10. It is one of the greatest misfortunes that have, or can ever 
happen to anyone. 

11. He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail; it never has, 
and never will prevail. 

12. He strongly insisted that the measure was unjust, and was 
opposed to the organization of labor. 

13. The old man said he was destitute of the means of subsist- 
ence, and had no money with which to purchase any. 

14. I will pardon him if he apologizes and will make reparation 
for the damage he has done. 

15. I was naturally grateful to the man who had once be- 
friended me, and was well disposed toward the whole party. 

16. It is no use trying to make him see what he owes to Robert 
and the friends who preserved him in peril. 

17. Both in the country and the city, at his home and business, 
you will find him the same genuine friend. 

19. He said that he would be able to see us when he returns to 
the city, and go over the matter more fully. 

20. We hope that you have decided to go ahead with the work, 
and we may have the pleasure of hearing from you by return mail. 

Miscellaneous Errors 

1. I only tecite once a day. 

2. I cannot hardly endure it. 

3. Repeat the word over again. 

4. That word is wrong ; erase it out. 

5. All the sentences are not correct. 

6. I should like to go with you very much. 

7. He had not scarcely a moment to spire. 

8. Iron is more useful than all the metals. 

9. Detroit is larger than any city in Michigan. 

10. He seems clearly to understand his business. 

11. Detroit is the largest of any city in Michigan. 

12. The children seemed to be dressed nearly alike. 

13. There is no man who would be more welcome. 

14. This picture is an exact fac-simile of the other. 

15. It is a good plan to adopt with new beginners. 

16. He seems to have more faith in us than his friends. 

17. This seemed to be the universal opinion of all men. 

18. I was not aware that you had been ill until yesterday. 



106 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

•' ■ v - ; l ••• -5^;j 

19. We do the largest business of any other firm in tne city. 

20. Please report any inattention of the waiters to the cashier. 

21. The child was a poor little orphan boy without any parents. 

22. We never have and never will be forced into such a measure. 

23. The performance will take place at 2 P. M., Saturday after- 
noon. 

24. I saw my friend when I was in Chicago walking down State 
street. 

25. They soon had an entire monopoly of the whole trade of 
the country. 

26. The horses being tired, they held a council and decided to 
go no farther. 

27. In one evening I counted a large number of meteors sitting 
on my piazza. 

28. As they were about to leave, they began to collect their 
things together. 

29. He said that he had heard nothing, and did not expect to 
before next week. 

30. He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an 
hour he thought that he had better go home. 

31. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scat- 
tered around, which appeared above the horizon. 

32. We import our coffee through our agents in New York, 
which is roasted and ground on the premises daily. 

33. The carriage stopped at a small gate which led by a short 
gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole 
party. 

34. Pupils who have partly completed their courses elsewhere, 
and having satisfactory evidence of the fact, will be put in the 
advanced classes. 

Test Questions 

1. Give the rule for the position of only. Give two examples. 
2. Give the rule for the position of correlatives. Give two ex- 
amples. 3. When should the preposition be repeated? Give an 
example. 4. When should to, the sign of the infinitive, be re- 
peated? Give an example. 5. When should the article be re- 
peated? Give an example. 6. Where is the emphatic position of 
the subordinate clause? Give three examples. 



CHAPTER V 
CHOICE OF WORDS 

Accept > Except 

To accept means to take what is offered ; to agree to ; as, 
"Please accept this as a gift from Mary and me." "I 
accept your proposition." 

To except means to leave out; as, "We will take all except 
this one." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. Did he accept-except your offer? 

2. Will he accept-except your invitation ? 

3. All accept-except one were readily sold. 

4. We decline to accept-except your resignation. 

Adapt, Adept, Adopt 

To adapt means to change ; to remodel ; to make suitable ; 
as, "The mind adapts itself to a difficult problem as the eye 
adapts itself to darkness." 

To adopt means to accept or to receive as one's own; 
as, "They adopted the child." 

An adept is one who possesses a high degree of skill; as, 
"He is an adept in all the details of his trade." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. We adapted-adopted a new plan for increasing the circulation 
of our paper. 

2. He is not adopted-adapted to such work. 

3. The adapted-adopted child did not readily adopt adapt itself 
to its new surroundings. 

Affect, Effect 

To affect means to influence, to act upon; as, "He was 
greatly affected by the death of his friend." 



108 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

To effect means to accomplish, to bring about; as, ''It 
is not best to effect too many changes at this time." 

Affect, as a noun, meaning affection, is rarely used. 

Effect, as a noun, means result, achievement; as, "What 
effect did the medicine have?" 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. How did the news affect-effect him? 

2. What affect-effect did the medicine have ? 

3. What affect-effect did the election have upon business in 
general and how did it affect-effect your business ? 

4. It has had the affect-effect of crippling speculation, but it did 
not seriously affect-effect legitimate business. 

5. Bodily exercise effects-affects all the organs of the body. 

6. The loud crash affected-effected my hearing. 

7. The consolidation of the two roads would affect-effect a great 
saving. 

Almost, Most 

Almost means nearly; as, "It is almost time to go." 
Most means the greatest number, quantity, or degree; 
as, "Most of the boys are already here." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. He was most-almost frozen. 

2. I am almost-most as tall as my brother. 

3. Most-almost everybody believes in some form of religion. 

4. I went to most-almost every store in town. 

Apt, Liable, Likely 

Apt implies a natural fitness or tendency; as, "He is 
apt to catch cold." "He is an apt pupil." 

Likely refers to a contingent event regarded as probable 
and usually favorable; as, "An industrious person is likely 
to succeed." 

Liable refers to a probable event regarded as unfavorable ; 
as, "He is liable to punishment for his misconduct." 



CHOICE OF WORDS 109 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. In low countries, one is apt-likely -liable to contract fever. 

2. I think it is likely-apt-liable to rain tonight. 

3. He is an apt-a likely student. 

4. An ignorant person is not apt-likely -liable to enjoy traveling. 

5. You are apt-likely -liable to lose on that investment. 

6. He is not apt-likely -liable to return tonight. 

Aught, Ought, Naught 

Aught is a noun, meaning anything. 

Ought is a verb, implying duty. 

Naught is a noun, meaning nothing. 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. I ought-aught to go now. 

2. You may be right for aught-ought I know. 

3. You should have one more ought-naught in your divisor. 

4. The figures are three, five, seven, and ought-naught. 

5. Have I done ought-aught to give offense? 

6. I have done ought-aught-naught to give offense 

Balance, Rest, Remainder 

Balance is a commercial term, meaning the difference 
between the two sides of an account; as, "There is a small 
balance still due us." 

Rest is used of both persons and things and of large as 
well as of small parts ; as, "The rest of the boys will go soon." 

Remainder is used only of things and denotes a com- 
paratively small part; as, "They will ship the remainder of 
the goods at your convenience." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. The remainder-rest of the evening was devoted to games. 

2. We attended the convention in the morning, and the remain- 
der-rest-balance of the day was spent in sight -seeing. 

3. We will pay the rest-balance-remainder of our account in a 
few days. 

4. The remainder-rest of the boys will be here in a few days. 



110 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

But What, But That, That 

Use but what only when the meaning is but that which, 

as, "I have none but what (but that which) he gave me." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. I do not know but what-but that I did it. 

2. I have no fear that-but that-but what he will recover. 

3. I do not doubt that-but that-but what he will succeed. 

4. I have no doubt but what-that-but that we all shall be benefited 
by it. 

5. I don't see but what-but that-that you have as good a right to it 
as she has. 

Calculate, Intend 

.Calculate means to compute, to reckon; as, "He calculated 
the interest due on the note." 

Intend implies purpose; as, "I intend to go soon." 

Can, May 

Can implies ability; as, "Can he pass the examination?" 
May implies permission, probability, or possibility; as, 
'May I use your knife?" "He may go." 
Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. Can-may I use your dictionary? 

2. May -can I go with you to the lake? 

3. Can-may I be excused for a moment ? 

4. No one may-can solve the problem of life. 

5. Will you be kind enough to tell me where I can-may find him ? 

Center, Middle 

Center is applied to circular or spherical bodies. It 
means a point; as, "The center of a circle or ball." 

Middle means a general location. It may be a line or 
a space; as, "The middle of the street." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1 . They found a bullet in the center middle of the ball. 

2. He walked down the middle-center aisle. 



CHOICE OF WORDS 111 

3. The table was in the middle-center of the room. 

4. Begin the heading near the center -middle of the page. 

Character, Reputation 

Character is what one really is; reputation is what one 
is thought to be; as, "I know nothing of his character, but 
his reputation is good." 

Cite, Site 

Cite means to mention by name; to summon; as, "He 
cited his authority." "He was cited to appear in court." 

Site means location ; as, "Has the site for the new building 
been selected?" 

Compare With, Compare To 

Compare with is used to determine the relative merits; 
as, "He compared his work with mine." 

Compare to means to liken one thing to another; as, 
"Christ compared the sinner to lost sheep." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. Compare this piece of cloth with-to that, and tell which you 
think is the better. 

2. He compared Grant with-to Napoleon. 
3. # This is not to be compared with-to that. 

4. This is a very inferior article compared to-with that. 

Complement, Compliment 

Complement means that which completes; as, "The 
complement of a verb completes the meaning." 

Compliment means praise; as, "He complimented me 
on my work." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. His remarks were a complement-compliment to what had 
been said. 

2. It is a compliment-complement to be permitted to share in the 
work. 

3. We wish you the complements-compliments of the season. 



112 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Continual, Continuous 

Continual means repeated frequently; as, "The continual 
rains have done much damage." 

Continuous means unceasing action; as, "The continuous 
falling of the water has worn the rocks away." 

Council, Counsel 

Council means a body of persons elected to assist in 
the administration of government or to legislate; as "The 
city council meets monthly." 

Counsel means one who gives advice, to advise, advice; 
as, "The counsel for the defense counseled the plaintiff's 
counsel to give different counsel to his client." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. I council-counsel you not to buy of him. 

2. There was much discussion in the council-counsel over the 
measure. 

3. He is council-counsel for some corporation. 

4. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the council-counsel of 
the ungodly. 

Creditable, Credible 

Creditable means that which redounds to one's credit; 
as, "He did this work in a creditable manner." 

Credible means worthy of belief; as, "The report is hardly 
credible." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. It was a credible-creditable performance. 

2. Some of the reports are hardly credible-creditable. 

3. It was very credibly -creditably done. 

4. We are creditably -credibly informed that he has succeeded. 

Depository, Depositary 

Depositary denotes a person with whom something is 
deposited. 

Depository, a place where something is deposited. 
Thus, a bank is a depository (not depositary). 



CHOICE OF WORDS 113 

Device, Devise 

Device is a noun, and means something invented; as, 
"We have a new device for folding envelopes." 

Devise is a verb, and means to plan; to give by will; 
as, "He devised a way by which the work could be done 
more quickly." "I devise and bequeath my property to 
my son." 

Elder, Eldest; Older, Oldest 

Discriminate carefully in the use of these words. 

Elder and eldest are correctly applied only to persons 
and usually only to persons in the same family; as, 
"John is the eldest son." 

Older and oldest are used of both persons and things, 
without restriction; as, "He is the oldest inhabitant." 
"This is the oldest house in the city." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. He is the oldest-eldest boy in school. 

2. The older-elder brother came home today. 

Emerge, Immerge 

Emerge means to come out of, to reappear in a new state ; 
as, "The butterfly emerges from the chrysalis." 

Immerge means to plunge into, especially a fluid; as, 
"Some heavenly bodies immerge in the light of the sun." 

Emigrant, Immigrant 

An emigrant is one who leaves a country. The e*ex } 
out of. 

An immigrant is one who comes into a country. The 
im=in, into. 

Thus, a person who leaves England and comes to America 
is an emigrant from that country, and an immigrant to 
this. 



114 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. . 

1. Thousands of immigrants-emigrants come to this country 
every year. 

2. Emigration-immigration to this country should be restricted 
by law. 

Eminent, Imminent 

Eminent means distinguished, prominent; as, "He is 
an eminent person." 

Imminent means impending, threatening; as, "He is 
in imminent danger." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. Webster was an eminent-imminent statesman. 

2. The missionaries were in imminent-eminent peril. 

Expect, Suspect, Hope, Anticipate 

We expect that which we have good reason to believe 
will happen. 

We hope for that which we desire and have some reason 
to expect. 

Anticipate means to look forward to with confidence 
. and pleasure. 

Suspect means to surmise, to mistrust; as, "I hope for 
a visit from my friend; I expect it when he writes; as the 
time draws near, I anticipate it with pleasure. If he does 
not come, I suspect he has deceived me." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. I expect-suspect he has played a trick on me. 

2. I e x pec t-ho pe-antici pate that my brother will come soon, 
though I have not heard from him for some time. 

3. I expect-anticipate-hope that I shall enjoy the picnic tomorrow. 

Fewer, Less, Smaller 

Fewer refers to number; as, "There were fewer there 
today than yesterday." 



CHOICE OF WORDS 115 

Less refers to quantity; as, "They harvested less grain 
today than yesterday." 

Smaller refers to size; as, "He is smaller than his brother." 
Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. There were fewer-less callers today than usual. 

2. There are no less-fewer than ten volcanoes in Mexico, each 
having an elevation of more than twelve thousand feet. 

3. There was a less-smaller audience today than usual. 

Formally, Formerly 

Formally means in a formal manner; according to estab- 
lished rule or form; as, "A formal introduction." 

Formerly means in time past ; as, "He was there formerly." 
Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. He was formerly -formally notified today of his appointment 
to the position for which he had formally '-formerly made application. 

2. Formerly -formally postage rates were much higher than they 
are now. 

3. They required him to send in a formal-former application. 

Good, Well 

Good is an adjective and should never be used as an 
adverb; as, "He played well today," not, "He played 
good." 

Well is used both as an adjective and an adverb; as, "He 
did well (adverb)." "He looks well" (adjective). 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. The lawn looks as good-well as I expected. 

2. I do not feel well-good today. 

3. He did the work good-well enough to suit me. 

4. I believe he is a good-well man. 

5. Does the candy taste good-well? 

6. You are looking good-well today. 



116 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Hardly, Scarcely 

These words are not strictly synonymous. 

Hardly expresses degree; as, "He is hardly well enough 
to go yet." 

Scarcely refers to quantity; as, "We have scarcely enough 
paper to last us through the week." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. The cold was so intense that we could hardly-scarcely endure it. 

2. He could hardly-scarcely finish the work in time to catch the 
train. 

3. Hardly-scarcely an hour had passed when we saw him re- 
turning. 

4. Scarce ly-hardly one in ten could write his name. 

Healthy, Healthful, Wholesome 

Healthy means possessing health. Healthful means con- 
ducive to health. Wholesome applies to what one eats; as, 
"He is a healthy person, lives in a healthful climate, and eats 
wholesome food." 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. Riding is a healthful-healthy-wholesome exercise. 

2. The place in which he lived was very healthful-healthy. 

3. Bananas are more healthy-healthful-wholesome when they are 
thoroughly ripe. 

4. His mind is sound; his body, healthful-healthy . 

Human, Humane 

Human has reference to mankind; as, "To err is human" 
Humane means kind; as, "His conduct was humane." 

If, Whether 

// is used to introduce a conditional clause; as, "I shall 
go if it does not rain." 

Whether is properly used to introduce an alternative 
clause; as, "I do not know whether (not if) this will suit 
you." 



CHOICE OF WORDS 117 

Latest, Last 

Latest means the last up to this time; as, "Have you 
read the latest edition of The Ladies' Home Journal?" 

Last means final; as, "The last of the Barons." Do not 
say, "Have you read his last book?" 

Learn, Teach 

Learn means to acquire knowledge; teach means to im- 
part it. Thus, "The instructor teaches, the student learns." 
Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 

1. President Johnson was taught-learned the alphabet by his 
wife. 

2. The father taught-learned the child to ride a bicycle. 

3. There is a man that taught-learned me to write. 

Lend, Loan 

Loan is a noun, and should not be used as a verb. Thus, 
"We lend (not loan) money." What we lend constitutes 
a loan. 

Libel, Slander 

These words are not synonymous. Libel differs from 
slander in that the former is written and published, while 
the latter is spoken. 

Lightening, Lightning 

The spelling of these words is often confused. 

Lightening means relieving of weight; as, "He lightened 
our burden." 

Lightning means a discharge of atmospheric electricity; 
as, "The tree was struck by light} 



Like, Love 

Do not use these words indiscriminately. 
Like means to be pleased with. Thus, "We like (not 
love) articles of food, flowers, dogs, etc." 



118 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Loose, Lose 

Loose is an adjective meaning unbound; free, not tight. 
Lose is a verb, meaning to be deprived of; as, "The rubbers 
were loose \ which caused him to lose one of them." 

Majority, Plurality 

A majority is more than half the whole number. A 
plurality is the excess of votes received by one candidate 
over those received by any other candidate, and is not 
necessarily a majority when there are more than two can- 
didates. Thus, "In an election, if A receives 400 votes, 
B 300 votes, and C 200, A receives a plurality, though not 
a majority. 

Number, Quantity 

Quantity is used of things that are weighed or measured ; 
as, "He raised a large quantity of grain." 

Number is used of things that are counted; as, "The 
grain was harvested by a number of men." 

1. There were a great quantity -number of carriages present. 

2. The grocer had a quantity -number of potatoes on hand. 

3. A quantity '-number of sheep were drowned. 

4. Delaware produces a large quantity-number of peaches. 

5. A large quantity-number of cattle were slaughtered in Chicago 
last year. 

Off, Of 

Off should not be followed by of. Say, "He fell off (not 
off of) the wagon." 

Practical, Practicable 

Practical means useful, opposed to theoretical; as, "Prac- 
tical knowledge." 

Practicable means capable of being accomplished with 
available means; as, "The plan appeared to be practicable." 
1. The world demands men who are fitted practically-practicably 
for its work. 



CHOICE OF WORDS 119 

2. Edison's inventions are chiefly of a practical-practicable kind. 

3. Communication by wireless telegraphy seems a practical- 
practicable scheme. 

4. Aerial navigation seems to be practical-practicable. 

Precedent, President 

A precedent is something that has occurred that is con- 
sidered as an established rule or an authorized example; 
as, "Such an act is without a precedent" 

A president is the head of a nation, society, firm, or the 
like; as, "Washington was the first president of the United 
States." 

Principal, Principle 

Principal means chief; highest in rank; money at interest; 
as, "He is principal of the Central High School." 

Principle means the source or cause from which a thing 
proceeds; as, "Always try to comprehend the principles 
of the subject taught." 

1. The principal- principle is $200; interest, $20. 

2. The book treats of the practical application of the principles- 
principals of grammar. 

3. I am glad to do it for you as a matter of principal-principle. 

Prophecy, Prophesy 

A prophecy is a prediction; as, "His prophecy was not 
fulfilled." 

To prophesy means to predict or to foretell events; as, 
"I prophesy that it will rain tomorrow." 

Providing, Provided 

Providing is a participle and should not be used for the 
conjunction provided. Say, "You may go provided (not 
providing) you will return soon." 

Purpose, Propose 

To propose means to offer. To purpose means to intend. 
Say, "I purpose (not propose) to go." 



120 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Real, Really, Very 

Real is an adjective, meaning genuine. Say, "The fruit 
is really good, or very good, (not real good)." 

Recommend, Recommendation 

Recommend is a verb. Recommendation is a noun. Say, 
"I secured a recommendation (not a recommend) from my 
employer." 

Seldom or Ever, Seldom or Never 

It is incorrect to say "Seldom or ever." Say, "Seldom 
if ever" or "Seldom or never." 

So-as, As-as 

So is used with as in comparing unequals; as, "He is 
net so tall as his brother." 

As is used with as in comparing equals; as, "He is as 
tall as I." 

1. A miss is so-as good as a mile. 

2. Paris is not as-so large as London. 

3. James is not as-so old as John. 

4. He may not have as-so much money as you, but he has as-so 
much common sense. 

5. I am not as-so fond of poetry as of prose. 

Stationary, Stationery 

Stationary means fixed; as, "Stationary stars." 
Stationery means pens, paper, etc.; as, "We have a good 
line of stationery." 

Statue, Stature, Statute 
Statue means a figure made of some solid substance. 
Stature means natural height of a person. Statute means 
a law; as, "It was determined by statute that the statue 
should be equal in stature with the original." 

1. Which of you, by taking thought, can add one cubit to his 
statute-stature-statue. 

2. The statute-stature-statue was of white marble, and was equal 
to the statute-stature-statue of an ordinary man. 



PART VI 

PUNCTUATION 

CAPITAL LETTERS 

Rule i. — The first word of every sentence should be- 
gin with a capital letter. 

Example: One's first duty is the one that lies nearest. 

Rule 2. — The first word of every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Example: For God hath marked each sorrowing day, 
And numbered every secret tear. — Bryant. 

Rule 3. — The first word of every direct quotation 
should begin with a capital letter. 

Example : Pope says, " Hope dwells eternal in the 
human breast." 

Rule 4. — The first word of every direct question should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Example: Ask yourself this question, Are you making 
the most of your time? 

Rule 5. — Every proper noun should begin with a cap- 
ital letter. 

Example: Martha, John Quincy Adams, New York. 

Rule 6. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns should 
begin with capital letters. 

Example : American from 'America, English from Eng- 
land, Christian from Christ. 

Note. — When, by long usage, adjectives have lost all associa- 
tions with the nouns from which they are derived, they are not 
capitalized; as, stentorian from Stentor, herculean from Hercules. 

Note 2. — The names of religious sects should begin with 
capital letters: as, , Protestants, Catholics, Methodists, Baptists. 



122 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Rule 7. — The words north, south, east, and west should 
begin with capitals when they refer to sections of the coun- 
try, but not when they refer simply to directions. 

Examples: The journal is circulated throughout the 
South and the Southwest. The wind is from the west. 

Rule 8. — The names of the days of the week and the 
months of the year should begin with capital letters. 

Examples: Monday, Tuesday, September, December. 
Note. — The names of the seasons should not begin with capital 
letters; as, fall, winter, spring, summer. 

Rule 9. — The word street, lake, river, etc., should be- 
gin with capitals when used in connection with proper 
nouns. 

Examples: Main Street; the Hudson River; Lake Como. 

Rule 10. — Words representing important historical 
events, epochs of time, etc., should begin with capital 
letters. 

Example: The Middle Ages; The Revolution. 

Rule ii. — When used as a part of a name, or applied 
to particular persons, titles of honor or office should begin 
with capital letters. 

Example: The address was delivered by Senator 
Dolliver. 

Rule 12. — In the titles of books, essays, etc., every 
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, and adverb should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Example: I enjoyed reading "The Man without a 
Country." 

Note. — The articles (the, a or an) should be written with a 
capital only when used as the first word of a title. 

Rule 13. — The words / and O should always be written 
with capital letters. 

Rule 14. — The words Bible, Scriptures, and all names 
of books of the Bible should begin with capital letters. 



THE COMMA 123 

Rule 15. — All names of the Deity and personal pro- 
nouns referring to the Deity should begin with capital 
letters. 

Example: God has given the land to man, but the sea 
He has reserved to Himself. 

Rule 16. — Common nouns, when vividly personified, 
should begin with capital letters. 

Example: Come, gentle Spring. 

THE COMMA 

Series of Words or Phrases 

Rule i. — Words or phrases used in a series in the same 
construction should be separated from one another by 
commas. 

Examples: Honor, affluence, and pleasure are his. To 
cleanse our opinions from falsehood, our hearts from malig- 
nity, and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 

Note 1. — When two words or phrases used in the same 
construction are connected by a conjunction, no comma is re- 
quired; as, "Education expands and elevates the mind." 

Note 2. — In such expressions as "A beautiful red rose," no 
comma is used to separate the adjectives, for the reason that they 
are not in the same grammatical construction. Red modifies rose ; 
beautiful modifies the expression red rose . 

Transposed Phrases and Clauses 

Rule 2. — Transposed phrases and clauses are set off 
by commas. 

Examples : When one has not a good reason for doing a 
thing, he has a good reason for letting it alone. Surrounded 
by familiar faces, he breathed freely again. 

Note. — When a transposed element is short and closely 
connected the comma may be omitted; as, "At noon we started 
on our way home." 



124 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

In the natural order, the subordinate clause follows the prin- 
cipal clause, and a phrase follows the word it modifies; hence 
when a phrase or a subordinate clause precedes the word it mod- 
ifies it is a transposed element. 

When a sentence begins with a preposition, a participle, 
or a subordinate conjunction, it contains a transposed element. 
Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by if, when, while, 
as, since, where, though, until, etc. 

Parenthetical Words and Phrases 

Rule 3. — Parenthetical words and phrases should be 
set off by commas. 

Example : The clouds seemed to float, as it were, lazily 
on the summer breeze. 

The following are among the words and phrases commonly 
used parenthetically: however, therefore, indeed, perhaps, too, 
of course, to be sure, in the first place, generally speaking, on the 
other hand, beyond question. 

Remvrk. — ■ Some of these words are used as modifiers, and 
when so used, they are not set off by commas. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, "However hard he studies, he improves but slightly," how- 
ever is an adverb modifying hard. 

Note. — Words and phrases standing at the beginning of the 
sentence, and referring to the sentence as a whole rather than 
to any particular word, though not strictly parenthetical, are 
set off by commas; as, "Well, how do you like it?" "To be sure, 
it is of little importance." Some of the words thus used are now, 
well, why, again, further, first, secondly, etc. 

Intermediate Expressions 

Rule 4. — Intermediate expressions should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Examples: The soldier, from force of habit, obeys. No 
state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any im- 
posts or duties on imports or exports. His story is, in 
several ways, improbable. 

Intermediate expressions are expressions that come between 
closely related parts of a sentence, as, for instance, between the 



THE COMMA 125 

subject and the predicate, between the parts of a verb phrase, 
or between the verb and its complement. 

If, however, the intermediate expression is restrictive, no 
comma should be used. Thus, in the sentence, "The tree by the 
garden wall was struck by lightning," the phrase by the garden 
wall is restrictive, since it restricts, or limits, the meaning of the 
word tree to one particular object of its kind. 

Nouns in Apposition 

Rule 5. — Nouns in apposition, together with their 
accompanying modifiers, should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas. 

Example: We, the people of the United States, do or- 
dain and establish this constitution. 

Note 1. — A title following the name of a person should be 
separated from the name by a comma; as, "W. W. Wheeler, 
Secretary." "The address was delivered by Rev. E. M. Mitchell- 
D. D., LL. D." 

Note 2. — When the noun in apposition stands alone or has 
only an article before it, no comma is required; as, "Paul the 
Apostle;" "the poet Milton." 

Note 3. — When a pronoun is used in apposition with a noun 
for emphasis, or in direct address, no comma is required; as, 
"He himself could not have done better." "Ye men of Athens." 

Nouns of Address 

Rule 6. — Nouns of address, together with their accom- 
panying modifiers, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. 

Examples: Young man, you must not forget that talent 
is only long patience. You must not forget, young man, 
that talent is only long patience. Yes, sir, it was I. 

Compound Sentences 

Rule 7. — The members of a compound sentence, when 
short and closely connected, are separated by commas. 
Examples: Science tunnels mountains, it spans con- 



126 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

tinents, it bridges seas, and it weighs the stars. Every 
man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 

Note 1. — When, however, the members have commas within 
themselves, the members should be separated by semicolons; 
as, "If we work upon marble, it will perish; if we work upon 
brass, time will efface it; if we rear temples, they will crumble 
into dust." 

Adverbial and Relative Clauses 

Rule 8. — Adverbial and relative clauses, when restrict- 
ive, are not set off by commas, but when they present 
additional thoughts, they should be set off. 

Examples: You have done the work well, which is all 
I ask. He will be here in a few days, when we will take 
the matter up with him. 

Relative and adverbial clauses are of two kinds: restrictive 
and non-restrictive. 

A restrictive clause is one that restricts, or limits, its antece- 
dent; as, "Bring me the book that lies on my desk." The clause 
that lies on my desk is restrictive, because it restricts, or limits, 
the antecedent book, by excluding all books that do not lie on 
the table. 

A non-restrictive clanse is one that introduces an additional 
thought; as, "Bring me Success Magazine, which you will find 
on my desk." The clause, which you will find on my desk, is non- 
restrictive, because it adds an additional fact, the sentence being 
equivalent to the two thoughts, "Bring me Success Magazine," 
and "You will find it on my desk." 

Omission of the Verb 

Rule 9. — When the verb is expressed in one member of 
a compound sentence and omitted in the others, a comma 
takes its place. 

Example: Our first object is to obtain knowledge; our 
second, to make a proper application of it. 



THE COMMA 127 

Complex Subject 

Rule io. — When the complex subject of a sentence 
ends with a verb, or is of considerable length, it should be 
separated from the predicate by a comma. 

Examples: All that you do, do with your might. That 
a man thoroughly educated in youth, and who has ever since 
been in the habit of composing could make so gross a mis- 
take through ignorance, is almost incredible. 

Quotations 

Rule ii. — A quotation, or anything resembling a 
quotation, should be preceded by a comma. 

Examples: Patrick Henry began his great speech by 
saying, "It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions 
of hope. " The question now is, How shall we know which 
book to select? 

Ambiguity 

Rule 12. — A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent 
ambiguity. 

Example: To remain in one spot always, prevents the 
mind from taking comprehensive views of things. 

Words or Phrases in Pairs 

Rule 13. — When words or phrases are used in pairs, 
a comma should be placed after each pair. 

Examples: Honesty and sincerity, truth and candor, 
are enviable traits of character. The sunny morning and 
the gloomy night, the bleak winter and the balmy spring, 
alike speak to us of the Creator's power. 

Contrasted Words or Phrases 

Rule 14. — Words or phrases contrasted with each 
other should be separated by commas. 

Examples: We live in deeds, not years. There are 
few voices in the world, but many echoes. 



128 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE SEMICOLON 

Rule i. — When the conjunction is omitted between the 
members of a compound sentence, they should be separated 
by semicolons. 

Example : The blue sky now turned more softly gray ; 
the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east 
began to kindle. 

Note 1. — When the sentences are short and very closely 
connected, they should be separated by commas; as, "The fire 
burns, the water drowns, the air consumes, the earth buries." 

Rule 2. — When the members of a compound sentence 
are subdivided by commas, they should be separated by 
semicolons. 

Example: Under the fierce winds, the pines bend 
their heads; and the mountain snow is swept away, form- 
ing immense heights, and hiding everything from sight. 

Rule 3. — The expressions namely, as, i. e., or that is, 
viz., etc., should be preceded by semicolons and followed 
by commas. 

Examples: We have five senses; namely, sight, taste, 
hearing, smell, and feeling. 

Rule 4. — When several expressions have a common 
dependence on a principal element, they should be sepa- 
rated from one another by semicolons. 

Examples : If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom 
in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest 
integrity, public and private; of morals without a stain; 
of religious feelings without intolerance and without ex- 
travagance, — the august figure of Washington presents 
itself as the personation of all these. 

When the element upon which the several expressions depend 
comes at the beginning of the sentence, the expressions should 
be separated from it by a comma; when it is placed at the end of 
the sentence, it should be separated from the series by a comma 



THE COLON 129 

and a dash; as, "Science declares, that no particle of matter can 
be destroyed; that each atom has its place in the universe; and 
that, in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws." 

THE COLON 

Rule i. — The salutation in business letters is usually 
followed by the colon. 

Examples: Dear Sir: Gentlemen: 

Rule 2. — A colon should be placed before a quotation, 
a specification of subjects, etc., when introduced by such 
expressions as this, these, that, as follows, etc. 

Example: The Declaration of Independence reads as 
follows: "When in the course of human events, it be- 
comes necessary for one people to dissolve the political 
bands which have connected them with another, and to 
assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's 
God entitle them, etc." 

THE PERIOD 

Rule i. — A period should be placed after declarative 
and imperative sentences. 

Example: In every life the post of honor is the post of 
duty. 

Rule 2. — The period should be placed after every 
abbreviated word. 

Examples: Ult., inst., prox., Rev. John L. Dwight, 
D.D., LL. D. 

Note 1. — When the first syllable of a Christian name is 
used as a substitute for the full name, no period is used; as, Ben, 
Tom, Dan, Will. 

Note 2. — The ordinal adjectives 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 23d, etc. 
are not strictly abbreviations, and they do not, therefore, require 
the period after them. 



130 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE INTERROGATION POINT 

Rule i. — Every direct question should be followed by 
an interrogation point. 

Example : Are you satisfied with the way in which the 
work was done? 

Note 1. — When several questions have a common depend- 
ence on a principal clause, each question should be followed by 
an interrogation point, and the word following it should begin 
with a small letter; as, "Shall treachery triumph in this decision? 
shall robbery? shall assassination? shall murder?" 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT 

Rule i. — The exclamation should be used after an 
interjection or an exclamatory expression. 

Examples: Peace! Peace! Why dost thou question 
God's providence? What a beautiful night! 

THE DASH 

Rule i. — A dash is used to mark a sudden or abrupt 
change in the construction of a sentence. 

Example: In the first place — but I will not discuss the 
matter further. 

Rule 2. — Parenthetical and appositive expressions are 
sometimes set off by the dash. 

Example : For two dollars — the cost of a theater ticket 
— you can secure this book. 

THE QUOTATION MARKS 
Rule i. — Every direct quotation should be enclosed 
in quotation marks. 

Example: Henry Clay said, "I would rather be right 
than be president." 

Remark. — A direct quotation is one in which the exact 
words of another are used. It should begin with a capital letter, 
be set off by a comma, and enclosed in quotation marks. 



THE HYPHEN 



131 



An indirect quotation is one in which the thought, but not 
the exact words, of another is used; as, "Clay said that he would 
rather be right than be president." An indirect quotation should 
not begin with a capital letter, should not be set off by a comma, 
and should not be enclosed in quotation marks. 

Note. — When a direct quotation is separated by interven- 
ing words, such words are set off by commas, and each part of 
the quotation is enclosed in quotation marks; as, When Fenelon's 
library was on fire, "God be praised," said he, "that it is not 
the dwelling of a' poor man." 

Rule 2. — The titles of books, magazines, essays, etc., 
should be enclosed in quotation marks or printed in italics. 

Examples: "The Ladies Home Journal;" "Success 
Magazine," or Success Magazine. 

THE HYPHEN 

Rule i. — An adjective modifier consisting of an adjec- 
tive and a noun should be hyphenated; as, an eight-mile 
drive; a half -inch space; a four-pound weight; a forty-foot 
lot; ten-inch bolts. 

Rule 2. — Certain combinations of words are sometimes 
used as an adjective, and when so used, they should be 
hyphenated; as, a made-to-order garment; an out-of-the-way 
place; ready-made clothing; well-to-do merchant; end-of- 
the-year rush; up-and-down motion; and I-told-you-so ex- 
pression. 

Rule 3. — Two numerals expressing a compound num- 
ber should be hyphenated; as, twenty-two, forty-five, ninety- 
eight. 

Rule 4. — When fractions are expressed in words, a 
hyphen should separate the two parts; as, one-half, two- 
thirds, three-fourths. 

Rule 5. — The words half and quarter, when prefixed 
to a noun, should be separated from it by a hyphen; as, 
half-dollar, quarter -pound. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Page 

Adjective, defined 6 

Classes of 6 

Properties of 86 

Comparison of 86 

Syntax of 88 

Adverb, denned 14 

Classes of 14 

Properties of 91 

Comparison of 91 

Adverb or Adjective 94 

Position of 92 

Anybody, number of , 68 

A nybody else's 64 

A nyone, number of 68 

Appositive, denned 25 

Article, denned 6 

Syntax of , 89 

Auxiliary Verbs 8 

Clause, defined 24 

Classes of 24 

Uses of 24 

Complements, denned 9 

Direct Object 9 

Attribute Complement 10 

Indirect Object 11 

Objective Complement 12 

Conjunction, defined 18 

Classes of 18 

List of 19 

Each, number of C8 

Either, number of . 68 

III 



INDEX 

Everybody, number of 68 

Everyone, number of 68 

Independent Element, denned 37 

Infinitive, denned . . . 28 

Uses of . 28 

Interjection, defined , 20 

It, expletive 39 

Lie, lay r 80 

Modifiers, defined 23 

Classes of 24 

Neither, number of 68 

Nouns, defined 1 

Classes of 2 

Properties of 57 

Number 57 

Gender 60 

Person 61 

Case , 61 

Syntax of 63 

Order of Elements 38 

Participles, defined 31 

Uses of 32 

Phrases, defined 24 

Prepositional 24 

Infinitive , . 28 

Participial 31 

Possessive Case of Nouns 63 

Preposition, defined ' .' 16 

List of 17 

Syntax of 95 

Pronouns, defined 4 

Classes of 4 

Properties of 57 

Number 57 

Gender 60 

Person 61 

Case 61 

Declension of 65 

Syntax of 66 

Compound Personal Pronouns 71 

Uses of 71 



INDEX 

Page 

Sentence, defined 23 

Classes of 33 

As to Use 33 

As to form 34 

Simple Sentence, defined 34 

Analysis of 40 

Complex Sentence, defined 43 

Analysis of 47 

Compound Sentence, defined 50 

Analysis of 52 

Shall, will 81 

Should, would 81 

Sit, set 80 

Somebody, number of 68 

There, expletive s 39 

Verbs, defined 8 

Classes of 9 

Properties of 73 

Voice 73 

Mode 73 

Tense 74 

Person 76 

Number 76 

Auxiliary Verbs S 

List of Irregular Verbs , 77 

Verbals, defined 26 

Classes of 26 

Verbal noun, defined 26 

Uses of 27 

How to Write Clearly 97 

Clearness, defined 97 

Correlatives, position of 99 

Only, position of 97 

Other, in comparison 101 

Participle, express subject of 98 

Participle, position of 98 

Personal Pronoun, antecedent of 98 

Repetition of Preposition 99 

Repetition of. the Sign of the Infinitive 99 

Repetition of the Article 99 

Repetition of that, introducing clauses 100 



INDEX 

Repetition of Subject 100 

Repetition of Auxiliary 101 

Subordinate Clause, position of ... . 100 

Choice of Words 

Accept, except 107 

Adapt, adept, adopt 107 

Affect, effect 107 

Almost, most 108 

Anticipate, expect, hope, suspect . 114 

Apt, liable, likely , 108 

As-as; so-as 120 

Aught, ought, naught .... , 109 

Balance, remainder, rest 109 

But what, but that, that 110 

Calculate, intend 110 

Can, may » .110 

Center, middle 110 

Character, reputation ,. . Ill 

Cite, site Ill 

Compare with, compare to Ill 

Complement, compliment Ill 

Continual, continuous 112 

Council, counsel 112 

Credible, creditable 112 

Depositary, depository 112 

Device, devise 1 13 

Elder, eldest; older, oldest. . . 113 

Emerge, immerge 113 

Emigrant, immigrant 113 

Eminent, imminent 114 

Fewer, less, smaller 114 

Formally, formerly , 115 

Good, well 115 

Hardly, scarcely 116 

Healthful, healthy, wholesome 116 

Human, humane 116 

If, whether 116 

Last, latest 117 

Learn, teach 117 

Lend, loan 171 

Libel, slander 117 



INDEX VII 

Page 

Lightening, lightning 117 

Like, love 117 

Loose, lose 118 

Majority, plurality 118 

Number, quantity 118 

Off, off of 118 

Practical, practicable 118 

Precedent, president 119 

Principal, principle 119 

Prophecy, prophesy 119 

Propose, purpose 119 

Provided, providing 119 

Real, really, very 120 

Recommend, recommendation 120 

Seldom or ever, seldom or never 120 

Stationary, stationery 120 

Statue, stature, statute 120 



List of Books Consulted 

"Correct English," by Josephine Turck Baker. 

" Practical English Grammar," by A. N. Raub. 

"Advanced Lessons in English Grammar," by Wm. 
H. Maxwell. 

"English Grammar," by Wm. D. Whitney and Mrs. 
Sara E. H. Lockwood. 

" Plain English, " by The Practical Text-Book Company. 

" Practical Exercises in English, " by Huber Gay Buehler. 

"School Grammar," by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. 
Sewell. 

" Outlines of Rhetoric," by John F. Genung. 

" Outlines and Exercises in English Grammar, " by Nellie 
B. Wallbank. 



IAN 4 19H 



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